Composition of the cake
Most bakers have revealed that a slice of Strawberry Sponge Cake is comprised of carbohydrates, proteins, calories, vitamins, and fat. The fat in the cake is broken into; saturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, and monounsaturated fat. Carbohydrates, on the other hand, are divided into sugars and dietary fiber. Although not all vitamins are present in the cake, Vitamin A, B, C, D, & E are present. Other components include Sodium, Potassium, Iron, and Magnesium. Nutritionally, these components are broken down differently through the metabolic process. The paper explores the major metabolic components as well as their role in the human body.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are among the basic food groups composed of starches, sugars, and fibers. Usually, carbohydrates are found in vegetables, grains, fruits, and milk products. They are classified into three subgroups: Monosaccharides, which are the simple sugars, with glucose being the most common. They are taken directly by the cells to the blood. Disaccharide is the maltose, lactose, and sucrose in the sugar and milk used to bake the cake. They have to be broken into smaller units. These small units could be the starting compound in glycolysis (D-Glucose). Even, they could be intermediates in the glycolytic pathway. The stoichiometric formula for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n when represents the number of carbons in the molecule. Starch is the storage form of glucose in humans. Generally, carbohydrates are good for one’s health as the body needs them to function well, but some may be healthier than others. Carbohydrates in the body are broken down into simple sugars and absorbed in the bloodstream. With the rise of sugar levels in the body, the pancreas releases insulin. It is the hormone that moves the sugar from the blood to the cells where the sugar is used to generate energy. Carbohydrates with too much simple sugars cause an increase in the sugar levels in the bloodstream. Too much or too low blood sugar levels means the body is not producing enough insulin to convert the sugars into energy. This leads to low or high blood pressure in the human body.
Glucagon, on the other hand, is produced by the pancreas when there are low glucose levels in the bloodstream. Glucagon converts glycogen back to glucose, making the blood glucose levels to go back to normal. Regulation of the blood glucose level is essential in the maintenance of the human body, thus maintain the homeostasis state. Since glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids, TCA acts the final pathway for the oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. The process breaks glucose into pyruvate, thus producing two ATO and two NADH molecules in the cytosol. Erythrocytes depend fully on glycolysis for energy. The pyruvate then enters the mitochondria through its membrane. Pyruvate translocase, located on the mitochondria membranes, links the TCA cycle with glycolysis. Therefore, the production of CO2, acetyl CoA, and NADH from pyruvate molecule. In the mitochondrial matrix, acetyl CoA is fed into the TCA cycle where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation, and each turn of the cycle produces two CO2, three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP molecules.
A molecule of glucose yields two acetyl CoA molecules; hence, the TCA cycle has to proceed twice. One glucose molecule has been completely broken down. However, most of the ATP is generated from reduced electron carriers such as FADH2 and NADH. Most ATP molecules are generated from oxidative phosphorylation of the electron carriers. Oxidative phosphorylation is, therefore, the process through which ATP is formed. The formation of ATP is a result of the transfer to O2 from NADH or FADH2 by a series of electron carriers. Transfer of electrons is through a series of membrane-bound carriers through redox reactions. During glucose catabolism, the released energy is captured as ATP molecules, and the hydrolyzing ATP allows the use of the captured energy in anabolic reactions.
Fig.1. Complementary Roles of Insulin and Glucagon
Fats
Fats are important macronutrients in the human body. They are essential to the human body as they are sources of energy and offers protection to the nerves and the skeleton. Also, the complement other nutrients in the body, thus improving the jobs. Fats are of different kinds, and some are healthier than others. Trans and saturated fats raise the levels of cholesterol in the body, thus increasing one’s risk of disease. They include dairy products, meat, baked food, and snacks. Unsaturated fats support one’s health and include seeds, oil, avocadoes, and nuts. They are further classified as monounsaturated to polyunsaturated. Generally, fats are classified as lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol. Its structure is made up of one glycerol (made up of three carbon atoms) and three fatty acids with a long chain of carbons. As per the fig. 2 below, there are different types of lipids.
Fig. 2 Types of Lipids
Digestion of fats begins in the mouth, whereby Lingual lipase breaks down short-chain lipids into diglycerides. Small intestine enzymes are responsible for the majority of fat digestion. Since lipids are insoluble in water, its digestion is hard. The liver produces bile, which contains bile salts, thus breaking the lipids into smaller units. The pancreatic lipase breaks down the lipids resulting to monoglycerides and free fatty acids. A CoA molecule is added to the fatty acids, thus producing acyl-CoA and is oxidized to generate FADH2 and NADH. The mitochondrial electron transport chain uses FADH2 and NADH to produce ATP. The fatty acids generate 129 ATP molecules. They are then absorbed through the small intestine lining to epithelial cells, which transmit them to the endoplasmic reticulum. Here, the digested products resynthesized into triglycerides and stored in the body. Unlike glycogen, that provides a readily available source of energy, lipids are used to store energy since they are more capable of reserving energy.
Integration & Signalling
Under normal condition, glucose is the main source of energy for the human brain. There is therefore a significant relationship between the brain and the metabolic process. Nonneuronal cells participate directly in the metabolism of neuronal energy. Astrocytes are responsible of regulating the brain response to metabolic activities. Astrocyte-neuron Lactate Shuttle (ANLS) argues that cells in the nervous system including glia, neurons and the microvasculature supplies molecular substrates of metabolism and energy. Together they the (NGV) have enabled an effective interaction between neurons and astrocyte. Furthermore, each organ have unique metabolic profile. In exception of prolonged starvation, glucose fuels the human brain. Lack of glucose stores in the brain, explains why there must be a continuous supply of glucose to the brain. The brain consumes approximately 120g of glucose per day which is significant to 60% of the consumption of glucose by the human body while on a resting state. On the other hand, muscle depends on fatty acids, glucose and ketone bodies. Unlike the brain, muscle have a large store of glycogen in that around three quarters of the glycogen in the body is stored in the muscle for later use. This glycogen is easily converted into glucose thus no need to export it. In the contraction of skeletal muscle, glycolysis rates exists the rate of citric acid cycle. Most of the pyruvate formed is converted to lactate and flow to the liver and is converted to glucose.
In contrast, the liver’s metabolic activities is to provide fuel to the muscle, brain and other organs. For instance, the liver collects glucose from blood and the monosaccharides and converts it into glucose. It however uses very little of it to meet its needs as the rest is converted into glycogen. In addition, phosphorylation is among the ways of regulating glycogen phosphorylase by converting it from a disordered state to an ordered one. Also, it is regulated by the allosteric effector through the changes in the structure of the enzyme.
The Whole cell
Phospholipid is a class of lipids which are the major component of all cell membranes. A phospholipid molecule comprises of a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails. Arranging phospholipids in a bilayer makes a basic fabric of the plasma membrane due to their amphiphilic characteristics. The cholesterol molecules scattered in the lipid layer enables to keep the membrane fluid consistent. Also, they give a cell a certain characteristic and assists in holding cells together.
Lipids plays an essential in living organism as they serve several functions for protection and storage. Cholesterol helps in making cell structures and membrane as well as synthesis for vitamin D and hormones.it also helps in regulating the membrane fluids regardless of the changes in temperature. Prostaglandin is a hormone like substance that plays a significant role in the human body by preventing formation of blot clot. It performs a wide range of functions such as blood pressure control, contraction and relaxation of muscle smoothly. Similarly, triacylglycerol play significant role in human lives. It acts as a store of metabolic energy. It also as a store for foodstuff which accounts for most of caloric intakes.
A plasma membrane envelops a cell’s cytoplasm thus offering protection while helping it maintain its shape. The cell membrane acts a receptor, regulating substance movements in and out of the cell. Also, a cell membrane also links the cell with other cells by receiving and passing chemical messengers. The cell membrane helps in absorption of substances as well the cell mobility. Similarly, structure of lipids helps in maintaining fluidity of the membrane. This have been enabled by the nature of their structure such as the length of the fatty acid tail helps in maintaining the fluidity of the membrane. Also, the phospholipid bilayer fluidity increases with the increase in temperature.
Identify structural organisation of organelles, nucleus , rough ER, membrane, golgi body,
Cells make up all living things but differ in shape, size and function. An organelle is a structure found within a cell and is bound by a membrane. According to figure 3 above, organelles are found in a viscous liquid within the cell membrane called a cytoplasm. The most important organelle is the nucleus and is placed at the center since it is control of the cell. The cell membrane is the cytoskeleton thus the determinant of the shape of the cell.
Reactions taking place in a cell occur at different space since every organelle is separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Compartmentalization helps in defining a cell and its organelles. It also protects the cell from external invaders such as a virus. Nutrients get into the cell through diffusion and osmosis. Cell signals are chemical in nature and can be noted through growth. Other are capable of responding to mechanical stimuli such that the can respond to touch
In conclusion, metabolism involves activities taking place in a living being as they are determinant of the life of beings. What we consume determines how our health will be which also applies to animals and plants. However, there is the need to control our diets by being ken on what we eat. Besides, unsaturated fats are not healthy for human being thus should be eaten sparingly.