The Secularization Trend in Turkey and the Rise of Islam Movement
Abstract
Secularism involves the separation of religion from state. For the secularization process to take place, there has to be a distinction between religion and state. A country that practices secularism seeks to promote equality, freedom, and fairness. Since secularism does not promote one religion over another, those with religious beliefs and those without are treated equally. The state stays away from religious affairs, while religious outfits stay away from the issues of the country. It thus means that politics and religion function independently. It is, however, essential to note that whereas separation promotes independence of state and religion, both may participate in the affairs of the other but not dominate. Secularism is thus deemed as not only religious freedom but political freedom too. Secularism can be passive or assertive. Exhibition of religious beliefs in public translates to passive secularism. The non-exhibition of religious beliefs in public translates to assertive secularism. Different countries practice different secularism practices. The U.S. and Turkey have differing secularism domains. Even though secularism is about separation politics become integrated into secularism, separating politics from secularism is therefore not possible. In this regard, secularism impacts politics, whereas politics impacts secularism. This paper focuses on secularism in Turkey in the 20th Century. Types of secularism are focused on. Turkey, as an assertive secularism country comes into focus as regards the reasons behind its choice of secularism. The paper also focuses on the rise of the Islamic movement in the 1980s. The role religion played as far as inequality was concerned also highlighted.
The Secularization Trend in Turkey and the Rise of Islam Movement
Introduction
Turkey is a West Asian country that is predominantly Muslim. Despite its Muslim majority population, the country had, for a long time, been an ally of non-Muslim countries such as the United States. It also conformed to western agreements and treaties such as NATO. Turkey’s support for western countries such as the U.S. and Britain regarding their Middle East policy was quite evident in the 1950s. The nation went against other Arab countries by recognizing Israel and supporting the Palestine Coalition Commission. Despite the inclusion and support of the western world, Turkey had a different view on the implementation of political issues in the 1940s and 1950s.
Due to the unique nature of Turkey concerning its religion and politics, the country provides a good ground for the focus on secularism. The country flourished under the Ottoman rule in the 19th Century (Szymański, 2016). Bearing in mind that the Ottoman Empire was Islamic, it thus explains the reason behind Turkey being predominantly Muslim. As inferred earlier, secularism promotes freedom and equality as far as religious beliefs are concerned (National Secular Society, 2017). It thus means that the country acknowledges and treats all faiths equally. Equal recognition means that despite predominance in Islam, other religions such as Christianity enjoy religious autonomy. The prevalence of the Islamic religion in a secular state means that despite its dominance, the doctrine is not recognized as the prevailing religion.
As a secular state, Turkey was not recognized as a Muslim country despite being predominantly Muslim. It regarded itself as a country that had no identifiable state religion. It is, however, essential to note that despite the inclusion and support of the western world, the nation had a different view on the implementation of political issues in the 1940s and 1950s. The U.S. and Turkey had different priorities as far as the two countries’ development was concerned. Turkey was not as politically and economically stable as the U.S. In this regard, strategies such as joining NATO were used to elevate Turkey to a more profound political and economic level. Supporting U.S. missions was yet another strategy used by Turkey. The country, for example, supported the Palestine Conciliation Commission. The move was critiqued by the Arab world, which did not support the action. Turkey was also supportive of Israel (Sever, 1998), another move that was anti Arab world and pro-Western world.
Types of Secularism
Different types of secularism determine how it affects both the political and religious aspects of a country. Secularism can either be assertive or passive. Assertive secularism dictates that the state favors a view that promotes a lack of religion in the public eye. In this regard, the existence of religion is left to the private sphere. Turkey is an example of a country that practiced assertive secularism. Assertive secularism treats secularity as an official doctrine model on its own. Passive secularism, on the other hand, dictates that religion is exhibited in the public domain. However, neutrality exists, which means that there is no official recognition of any particular religion (Szymański, 2016). The U.S., for example, exercises passive secularism whereby religious belief is exhibited publicly. Nevertheless, the country does not have a particular state religion.
Advantages of Secularism
Secularism has benefits that include separation of religion from state. The separation means that religion functions independently and can, therefore, not be forced on any person. Identity is thus not based on religious beliefs. Freedom and equality also exist under secularism. The separation of religion and state conversely means that there is equality for all people regardless of religious beliefs. It also means that there is freedom of perspectives that are not influenced by a particular religion. As there was no official religion or belief, everyone and every religious doctrine were treated as equal. It is thus essential to note that secularism rides predominantly on a need for equality. Different needs motivated the move to secularization by both the U.S. and Turkey. Whereas Turkey needed to do away with religion due to its role in inequality, the U.S. was seeking to have the church freed from the state (Szymański, 2016).
Depending on the type of secularism in question, the state can participate in religious matters and vice versa through a mutual agreement or legal regulations. In the U.S., religious issues are determined by the justice system and not the state, therefore, supporting impartiality (Szymański, 2016). Participation, however, does not equate to determining agenda outcomes. Separation of state and religion is necessary when political issues are concerned. The state is involved in politics; hence separation results in religious institutions keeping away from politics. The Catholic Church, for example, is involved in the politics of many countries that do not practice secularism. Involvement includes financial as well as the backing of political interests. Secularism ensures that religion is not involved in any aspect of politics.
Disadvantages of Secularism
Secularism has drawbacks as well, which include a lack of religious participation and identity. The teaching of religious studies, for example, is not supported in public schools (Szymański, 2016). The teaching of particular religious beliefs would deem the particular religion supreme over other religions. It, therefore, means that forming political allies with Muslim countries could have been a daunting task. Loyalty could be questioned from a religious, political background. It is therefore not surprising that Turkey was not allied to Arab countries, which are predominantly Muslim states. The country, however, was a close ally of the U.S., which equally was a secular country.
Religion gives a sense of moral direction. Separation of state from religion translates to a legal execution of the law that does not include moral obligation characterized by religion. The Islamic movement pioneer deemed secularism as thwarting brotherhood (Yang & Guo, 2015). In this regard, secularism stifled the sense of looking out for each other as a society and promoted an individualistic way of living. Assertive secularization translates to a country not having or portraying any particular religion publicly. Religion becomes a private practice carried out at a personal and not public level (Szymański, 2016).
Turkey’s Secularization Trend in the 20th Century
The Ottoman Empire ruled due to its stable educational, religious, political, military, and economic state. A divide between the regular people and the rich and educated became evident with time (Heper 2000). The rich and educated had access to more opportunities and were more exposed due to living in the urban areas. The exposure also resulted to the elite group learning other languages such as Arabic and Persian. With time the elites embraced a Western culture and supported secularism which was synonymous with economic development.
As the strength and dominance in the mentioned facets dwindled over time, Islam as the dominant religion began to lose its meaning. As a result, Turkey started rebuilding itself in the 20th Century away from an Islamic perspective. It, therefore, meant that Turkey restructured its political, economic, educational, and military functioning away from an Islamic perspective. The restructuring resulted in the country seeking modernized structures. The modernization was predominantly European, and it resulted in the country’s system taking on a westernized character.
Traditional Islamic systems such as the education system were restrictive, hence the need for Western solutions, which resulted in westernized system models. European educational system, for example, allowed a more integrated approach than the Madras Islamic system of education (Szymański, 2016). Due to the success of the educational western education system, other methods were also integrated. The move from the Ottoman Empire system to the European system was the beginning of secularism in Turkey in the 20th Century. Laws and regulations that supported secularism were instituted as more secular models were adapted. As secular models thrived, the religious model (Islamic model) continued to lose its authority.
The gradual loss of authority gradually led to the uptake of secularization in Turkey. As inferred earlier, secularism has an advantage, such as freedom and equality. Liberty and equality were two fundamental aspects lacking during the Ottoman rule. It is therefore not surprising that secularism took root in a significantly religious country. The education system, for example, was not encompassing compared to the western education system (Yang & Guo, 2015). The gap thus considerably contributed to inequality as far as job access and qualification were concerned.
The existence of religion as the driving force of government system also means that non-Muslims were automatically disenfranchised. Secularism meant that no religion was recognized at the state level; hence opportunities were open and equal to all regardless of religious beliefs. It is essential to note that equality influenced not only education but also other government systems. Men and women did not enjoy equal opportunities. Islamic beliefs did not give a level playing field for women and men hence influenced education and work opportunities (Narli, 1999).
Turkey had flourished under the Ottoman rule for an extended period. However, the emergence of European powers meant that things had changed. Over time, such changes affected the Ottoman Empire, thus eventually rendering it ineffective. The European secular system was working in France and the U.S. The two were superpower countries in the 20th Century. Aligning with such countries thus made economic and political sense towards the sustainability of Turkey as a country (Szymański, 2016).
Reasons for Assertive Secularism in Turkey
The move towards assertive secularism in Turkey was modeled after the French secular system due to the preexisting situation (Szymański, 2016). Turkey had been ruled for decades by the Ottoman Empire, which was based on the Islamic religion. Service delivery and the running of government institutions were focused and themed around religious beliefs. Access to opportunities was significantly determined by the religious beliefs an individual ascribed to. Being an Islamic country meant that non-Muslims were segregated. A religious country is likely to teach religious studies in schools. As a result, non-religious students automatically do not fit into the school due to their unconventional religious beliefs. It ultimately means that education services are not equally accessed.
Such issues necessitated the total control of religion in Turkey, as well as education equality. As mentioned, the U.S. functioned under a passive type of secularism. While the U.S. secularism model was achieved through working together with religions, the French secularism model was achieved through working against religions. In this regard, the passive model was not the preferred option since Turkey was not in a similar position. Turkey was not looking forward to working with religion. A hostile approach modeled after France was thus necessary (Szymański, 2016). The approach would ensure that religion was not a public but a private aspect. Secularism in Turkey, therefore, sought to control religion. Control of religion was aimed at ensuring that the undergoing modernization was not hindered (Szymański, 2016).
Rise of the Islamic Movement in Turkey in the 1980s
The Ottoman Empire’s rule and subsequent secularization eventually resulted in an Islamic movement in Turkey. The essence of secularism was to do away with religion at the state level. Despite the modernization that resulted from secularism, Islamic movements gained traction from the 70s to the 80s (Narli, 1999). The Ottoman religious rule had been deemed to fuel inequality in the country while modernization (through secularism) was considered to support equality. Turkey thrived under the secular model, but over time some aggrieved parties sought to have religious-political movements. Issues relating to traditions, for example, had rendered some Islamic minorities poor. Traditions that did not allow females to attend school, for instance, resulted in such individuals not having access to opportunities (Narli, 1999).
The opportunity and subsequent equality issues translated to a willingness to join Islamic movements. The National Outlook Movement, under the leadership of former Prime Minister Erbakan, played a significant role in the rise of the Islamic movement (Yang & Guo, 2015). A return to religion was seen as the solution to the economic and political challenges that Turkey was facing. The welfare party under the leadership of Erbakan won the elections in 1983, but it was banned (Yang & Guo, 2015).
The purpose of the Islamic movement was to reinstate a sense of brotherhood that had been lost in the inception of secularism. Modernization, which had been the basis of secularization, no longer achieved the initial goal. As a result, the development and equality goal that had been the driving force lost its significance. The bad economic and political state of the country no longer defended secularism. Religious individuals who felt that the model was ineffective chose to use a religious movement model.
Strengthening the educational aspect of supporters was required. The secular elites were intelligent and economically astute due to their access to jobs and nearness to urban centers. In this regard, the Islamic movement had to strategize as far as having Muslim minorities’ access opportunities was concerned. As such, they were encouraged to move from rural areas to urban areas and get educational services. Education would get them job access, which would transform economic status. School education would also ensure elevated intelligence levels. To realize this goal, the Islamic elites offered support that would ultimately accomplish the intended purpose (Yang & Guo, 2015).
Many people moved to the cities where they gained education and work opportunities in the 1980s. Access to opportunities not only meant that more people had access to education and economic opportunities, but it also meant that the provincial towns where these individuals came from began to rise economically. As a result, small businesses away from the cities flourished. Support for the Islamic movement was garnered through economic and education reforms.
Relationship between Sociology and Secularism
Sociology involves the study of human relationships, including religion, social class, and state (UNC College of Arts and Sciences, 2020). Secularism involves state and religion. The separation of the state and religion dictates how people and institutions relate to each other. Regarding secularism, the two function as independent entities devoid of interruption from each other. The focus on secularization in Turkey thus involves the study of human religious beliefs and state institutions. The precise boundaries between religion and state dictate how Turks relate at an individual, society, and state level. The lack of relationship between the state and religion, for example, culminated in the rise of the Islamic movement.
The Ottoman rule dictated how resources were accessed, how people interacted with each other, and how religion and the state interacted. Such interactions led to the prominence of the Ottoman Empire. The very same interactions had also led to the downfall of the rule and subsequent move to secularization. An interaction that showcased authority and economic affluence had resulted in the Empire ruling Turkey for decades. A lack of power and economic, as well as political, influence equally led to the downfall of the Empire. A failed relationship between the people and the Empire resulted in secularization. Consequently, a strained relationship between Muslim elites and the government institutions led to the rise of the Islamic movement.
Class and religious issues were also evident as the division between the elite and the commoners increased. While the elite gained access to economic and political opportunities, the minorities had limited opportunity (Yang & Guo, 2015). Muslims equally enjoyed access to opportunities as opposed to non-Muslim minorities. Opportunities such as education, for example, were limited depending on religion and class aspects.
Conclusion
While it neutralizes all religions, secularization has both advantages and disadvantages (Pollock, 2011). Countries such as the U.S. have used the secular model for decades. As mentioned earlier, secularism seeks to separate powers between the state and religion. It is possible to separate the two and realize the intended goal of secularism. Each country under the secularism model has its intended purpose and outcome. Turkey equally had its intended goal and outcome as far as secularism is concerned. The country is still secularized as it does not have an official religion. This is despite the fact that the country has a high number of Muslim faith populations (Heper 2000). Choosing a secularism model was necessary, post the Ottoman Empire era. The country needed to rebuild and develop economically and politically. The total control of religion may have significantly contributed to the rise of the Islamic movement in the 1980s. Equality goals that were not sufficient equally resulted in the rise of the Islamic movement. The importance of the movement is evident years later as the country has been ruled by Islamic party post secularism.
The type of secularism enforced dictates the outcome as concerns achieving goals sought. The passive secularism model used in the U.S., for example, has been successful many years after inception. On the other hand, the assertive (or hostile) model used in Turkey eventually failed despite being successful for some time. As argued by Szymański (2016), it thus means that despite a hostile secularism model being necessary, its sustainability was significantly challenged. It is, however, essential to note that the failure is not exclusively based on the model chosen. Other factors equally led to the collapse of secularism as far as controlling religion in Turkey is concerned. To adequately understand secularism in the country, it is vital to understand the country’s history regarding the dominance of the Islamic faith.
References
Heper, M. (2000). The Ottoman legacy and Turkish politics. Journal of International
Affairs, 54(1). http://www.jstor.org/stable/24357689.
Narli, N. (1999). The rise of the Islamist Movement in Turkey by Nilufer Narli.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237588621_The_Rise_of_the_Islamist_Movement_in_Turkey.
National Secular Society. (2017). What is secularism?
https://www.secularism.org.uk/what-is-secularism.html.
Pollock, D. (2011). Secularism is neutrality towards all religion – including atheism.
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/jul/07/secularism-neutrality-religion-atheism.
Sever, A. (1998). The compliant ally? Turkey and the West in the Middle East 1954-58.
JSTOR, 34(2), 73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283938?seq=1.
Szymański, A. (2016). Secularism in Turkey–Historical and contemporary perspectives.
https://ecpr.eu/Filestore/PaperProposal/55361802-ae8a-4d4c-97a2-95ad2ea7ff55.pdf.
UNC College of Arts and Sciences. (2020). What is Sociology? | Department of Sociology.
https://sociology.unc.edu/undergraduate-program/sociology-major/what-is-sociology/.
Yang, C., & Guo, C. (2015). “National Outlook Movement” in Turkey: A study on the rise and
development of Islamic political parties. Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies (In Asia), 9(3), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/19370679.2015.12023269