Lawrence Freeman
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.1 Introduction
There is relatively limited scholarly literature on Lawrence Freeman with most of his earlier history coming from his accounts. However, there notable studies that attempt to explain the life of the Freeman and some of the iconic works of his time (see Gutkin & Newland, 2015; Gutkin, 2019; Worley, 2018; Davis, 2008; Perpener, 2001; Floyd Jr, 1988). For instance, in the study of Handy (2009), where the focus was on the Lawrence Freeman, noted that Freeman self-studied piano as a child-led a group of boy singers, and performed as an organist for his local church. The authors added that Freeman was very enthusiastic as well as determine to challenge most of the black situation through his music art (Handy, 2009). His career life also had a gradual movement just like other iconic opera music producers, composers, and pianists; this characterizes setbacks, but Freeman was very zealous (Handy, 2009; Ziegel, 2011). Moreover, in the 1880s, he moved to Denver, where he attended a performance of Tannhauser by the Emma Juchs Grand Opera Company (Gutkin, 2019). Lawrence later identified the performance as a major turning point in his career as he soon created an all-black Freeman Opera Company to make original performances of his early productions. The company premiered Epithalia in 1891 and The Martyr in 1893 (Gutkin, 2019). Despite being hailed as a thought-leader for the black community and culture during his time, most of Freeman’s productions never received widespread appeal or recognition. In this way, Lawrence Freeman personifies the body of African American creative thinkers who thrived during the Harlem Renaissance but fell into obscurity.
The literature review chapter conveys the content of other researchers using inductive reasoning. The inductive approach, in this case, assists the researcher in making a general observation from other sources purposefully on Lawrence Freeman and Harlem Renaissance (Davis, 2008). The researcher approaches the two significant parts of the research from a broader perspective before narrowing to the core of the study using the observed resemblance, regularities, and patters. The narrowed section of the chapter examines the influence of Lawrence Freeman on the Harlem Renaissance and vise visor before summarizing the whole literature review (Davis, 2008). Prior to the narrowed sections, the chapter covers the historical background of Lawrence Freeman and its related subsection, followed by the background of the Harlem Renaissance and its related subsections (Davis, 2008).
Historical Background of Lawrence Freeman
Background
Studies try to trace the early life of Lawrence Freeman from Cleveland, where he was born to his death (examples, Handy, 2009; Gutkin & Newland, 2015; Gutkin, 2019; Worley, 2018). Worley (2018) studied Harry Lawrence Freeman with the view of establishing and explaining his pioneering African Grand Opera works. In their study, Worley (2018) revealed that Harry Lawrence Freeman is one of the influential figures in the 19th century because of the literature and works as at the time in history. The researcher added that he was born in 1869 (Worley, 2018). In addition, Worley (2018) added that Freeman grew up in a humble background all through to become one of the most influential composers at the time. Gutkin and Newland (2015) further pointed out that his work oOperara launched him into the grand stage of literary works, making him a household name during the Harlem Renaissance period. Besides Gutkin and Newland (2015), there are notable literature works that not only address the works of African American Opera but also acknowledge the famous works of H. Lawrence Freeman (Gutkin & Newland, 2015; Handy, 2009; Johnson, 2019; Meadows, 1992; Perpener, 2001; Floyd Jr, 1988; Patton & Honey, 2001; Scruggs, 1996). Additionally, he is known to be behind the Freeman School of Music and the Freeman School of Grand Opera, which composed and conducted performances (Ziegel, 2011). The string of his actions led him to get the name the black Wagner as a to compare him with the American legend Richard Wagner.
Early Works
The study of Harry’s history reveals a man dedicated to the development of art in his works. According to Worley (2018), Harry began his passion for music at the early stages of life. At the age of ten, Harry already learned how to play the piano in what would be one of the most defining instruments in his later stages in life. At eighteen years of age, Harry was already staging his own performances, imitating previous compositions, and doing his own compositions as well (Ziegel, 2011). The early works were as a result of the increasing influence the Harlem period had on the artists and other people in the society at the time (Gutkin & Newland, 2015).
The Harlem period presented an opportunity for the black community to get confidence in developing content and performing to promote the black culture (Gutkin & Newland, 2015). The blacks at the time advocated for equity and needed a way of fitting into the western culture. Freeman founded the Freeman Opera company at the age of 22, which he could use as the shell in which to compose and perform his works (Ziegel, 2011). The first major hit was the Epithalia in 1891 done in Denver, Colorado (Davis, 2008). The first track was followed by the Martyr. The composition of the early works was an early indication of the massive influence the young Freeman was going to have on the Harlem period and beyond (Handy, 2009). The classical composition on the African American culture brought in the confidence on the need to work consistently sensitive the black people on their culture and abilities (Adams, 2015). Freeman improved his skills by undergoing formal training on music as a way of improving to become a producer in the African American context.
Harry Freeman grew up at the time when the Harlem period has a massive influence on the neighborhood in New York (Handy, 2009). At the start of his work, there was an increasing influence of his early works not only among the black community at Harlem but also on the rest of the races. Handy (2009) narrates that Scott Joplin, who was at the time of the leading composers at the time calling on Harry to work on his three-acOperara. The jam “Treemonisha” became a hit after the changes as opposed to the previous year when it was composed. The call on Harry to revise the exiting work was an indication of the increasing influence Harry had at the time. Adams (2015) also adds that many more artists looked upon Harry Freeman on the best editing and jamming on the pieces of art in the early 1900s. The extent to which Freeman assisted artists is unknown, but scholars agree on the increasing help he granted many more artists.
Harry Freeman understood the impact of his works and, as such developed ways to increase influence during the Harlem Renaissance (Handy, 2009). As such, he founded the Negro Grand Opera Company in 1920 as a way of doing more productions and increasing his influence on the works in the society (Floyd Jr, 1988; Handy, 2009; Johnson, 2019). Freeman used the Negro Grand Opera as a source of influence during the Harlem period (Wittmer, 2015). As a musical director, he is accredited to the development of many more artists that shaped conversations during the time in history.
Harry Freeman did not only deal with the music but used his company to increase the influence on different aspects of art. According to Gutkin (2015), Harry Freeman also extended his works to include comedy work. Harry Freeman was an instrument in developing content and played as a director in the Hogan Musical Comedy Company in the early 1900s. The work of comedy is also attributed to the influence of the Harlem Renaissance (Johnson, 2019). The themes in the works developed during the time pointed to the increasing education on the blacks regarding their culture and position in society. Meadows (1992) explains that the themes of spirituality, traditions, jazz, and melodies during Harlem time.
Death and Legacy
Harry Freeman passed in 1954 in New York but left a legacy on a significant level of influence in shaping the conversation around the black community. While he faced challenges at the later stages of his life in staging music and performing, he was a key figure in the development of music. Gutkin (2015) recognizes that Harry’s works are not easy to get because he did not record them commercially or published any of his works. However, the manuscripts he used in the performance of his music remain a key indicator in recognizing his work during the Harlem period. Freeman did several compositions on the popular and classical music that communicated largely on the African American period (Perpener, J2001).
2.1.2 Grand Opera
The Harlem Renaissance had a notable effect on Lawrence Freeman. At the start of his career, Freeman was determined to fuse European operatic tradition with traditional African identities (Perpener, 2001; Patton & Honey, 2001). However, by his own telling, he initially rejected the influence of folk music entirely. In /The Negro Music and Drama/ Freeman recalls a heated discussion with Paul Laurence Dunbar about African American folk culture (Wittmer, 2015). Dunbar, who had attended an 1893 performance of Freeman’s The Martyr, was surprised at the lack of Negro themes, work, folk, and camp-meeting songs prominent in the South. Therefore, Dunbar criticized Freeman on his omissions and the alienation from his people’s traditions. On his part, Freeman felt exasperated at the suggestion since he claimed no knowledge of the said culture. Freeman prided himself on his formal education, which discouraged the use of primitive-sounding graning, wailings, and moaning in music and composition.
Freeman wrote twenty-two operas over his life, although the exact number is uncertain due to varied reasons. Freeman lost some of his compositions during his move from Denver to Cleveland, from Cleveland to New York and subsequent apartment moves. Freeman often changed his compositions’ names post-production, which may have led to overestimates. Furthermore, he frequently mentioned the names of compositions in progress to friends and family, although some of them were never completed (Wittmer, 2015).
While Freeman contributed to other genres, notably arrangements of spirituals, and composition of minstrel songs, orchestral music, and ballet, his passion was foOperara, which led him to brand a new type for the stage. To this end, he blended the style of French granOperara with the power and precision of Wagnerian music drama, the extended tonality and chromatic harmony of the late Romantics, and the spiritually uplifting segments of African American culture, that is, spirituals and gospel.
2.2 Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance was one of the most significant artistic and intellectual trends of 20th century American history. The Renaissance catalyzed a shift towards a more politically assertive and self-confident perception of identity and racial pride leading Locke (1992) to coin the term “New Negro.” When defining the traits of the “New Negro,” Locke (1992) recommended intellectual curiosity about black culture and history among African Americans. The identity reevaluation required and realistic representation of the African American experience (Austin, 1966; Magloire, 2017). The publication of intellectual capacity among African Americans in art was a core pre-requisite for the sustenance of the Harlem Renaissance (Floyd Jr, 1988; Meadows, 1992). Locke (1992) perceived the black artist’s role as to repair the damaged group psychology and reshape the dominant social narrative (Locke, 1992). The most efficient route for attaining these goals was to catalyze the reevaluation of the Negro’s artistic endowments and contributions. For African American intellectuals in the Harlem Renaissance, the optimal strategy to achieve this was through incorporating themes of black identity and history into their productions (Meadows, 1992). A notable aspect of the Harlem Renaissance was that the revaluation was not limited to African American artists, although black creatives had a central role in pioneering the intellectual advancement of the race, Meadows (1992) believed that black culture had attributes useful to all American artists. Locke (1992) conceptualized thRenaissancece as a channel for infusing black subject matter and style into American culture, similar to how thRenaissancece catalyzed the spread of Greek culture across Europe (Magloire, 2017).
Negro entertainers only gained mainstream acceptance after the Civil War (Woodson, 1990). Despite financial difficulties perpetuated by their race, many of the early African American entertainers made sporadic efforts, either individually or as groups, which pioneered the Negro show business (Scruggs, 1996). However, the growing creative contributions perpetuated the Negro stereotype, for, in the late 19th century, Negro entertainers began appearing in blackface minstrelsy. Edward Harrigan’s sketches about Negro life further cemented the comic stereotype among whites. The performers wore not only similar makeup as whites but also utilized similar artificial patterns leading to a perception of the Negro as a buffoon or minstrel character (Scruggs, 1996).
The Negro’s relegation to a subservient position in art was merely a reflection of his status in mainstream society. Prior to British colonization and in the early days of settlement, Americans had minimal social distinctions of race. Nevertheless, as the mercantilist system took hold among the colonies of New England, slavery emerged as the cheapest form of labor.
2.3 Spiritualism in the Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance began in the 1900s and catalyzed an appreciation for African American race and heritage in mainstream American culture. ThRenaissancece emphasized linking history to scholarly education in the black population to generate a sense of racial pride (Floyd Jr, 1988; Giggie, 2007). One of the more popular ways was through througVoodoooo, which came from the ancestral African religion. Voodoo had roots in the African religion known as Vodun which came to America with the settlement of Jamestown in 1619 and the subsequent slave trade. From the early days, white settlers were afraid of the religion as they did not understand its tenets and beliefs, leading to suppressive efforts. However, the forced suppression led to the incorporation of Vodun practices into other religions such as Catholicism, thus creating a derivative religion known voodoo in the Caribbean and the USA (Raboteu 115). IVoodoooo, a believer could pray to a specific godly entity, present offerings, and dress in specific ways to please the deity or receive protection. Believers also worshipped through evoking ancestral spirits which connected the disenfranchised slaves to their past. The continuance of ancestral religions worked as a coping mechanism for the slaves who perceived their ancestors as external entities that could facilitate their well-being compared to their slave masters.
Since ancestral worship contrasted sharply to Christianity regarding beliefs and worship practices, slave owners were afraid of the wild dances, herbal concoctions, and spirit invocation (Raboteau 1995). DespitVoodoooo having a peaceful orientation, the religion had a dark aspect known as “hoodoo.” While both traditions seek meaning in everyday lifeHoodoooo has a harmful orientation with potions, curses, and charms meant to catalyze physical and mental damage. Traditional ancestors, who were generally perceived as benign and helpful, could be evoked undeHoodoooo to harm a person or family (Dutton, 1993). Worshippers also carried charms such as rabbit’s foot to ward off potential evil spirits. Essentially, African Americans in history useHoodoooo to seek revenge for their historical injustices and to identify and punish their enemies.
Both hoodoo anVoodoooo were prominent in the Harlem Renaissance due to the continued immigration of African Americans from the Caribbean and the Jim Crow South (Giggie, 2007). The Great Migration began at the dawn of the 20th century and continued until the 1970s. During this migration, Gregory (2006) estimates that more than eight million African Americans moved from Southern regions into key northern cities. With the enactment of Jim Crow rules in the South, most African Americans were disenfranchised from most social, economic, and political opportunities (Giggie, 2007). Furthermore, the Agriculture-based economy of the South, coupled with conservative ideals, had stifled the development of the industry. Therefore, many African Americans had no livelihood and opted for migration to northern cities like Harlem (Scruggs, 1996). Locke (1992) notes that the new generation was instrumental in catalyzing a shift towards creating and contributing to the intellectual progress of the race. In “The New Negro,” he states, the Negro has already made very substantial contributions, not only in his folk-art, music especially (Woodson, 1990). In this passage, Locke (1992) highlights the African American cognizance of past and present forms of art with the unique racial expression contributing to society.
Voodoo anHoodoooo were core parts of the Harlem Renaissance as they facilitated traditional African “racial expression” in a white-dominated society (Dutton, 1993). As seen in Freeman’s Voodoo, the primary theme is revenge and wielding the power to inflict harm, which is key to hoodoo practices (Davis, 2008). The power oHoodoooo also facilitated control over another person in a form inaccessible to the white man. The creatives of the Harlem Renaissance had the power to determine its evolution without the white man’s interference. In times when they were mostly perceived as comic acts, thRenaissancece gave African American intellectuals the power to own and create (Holloway, 2005). Voodoo also demonstrates the innate need to control their own race as whites dominated American society with social and political institutions designed to suppress the black race (Dutton, 1993). ConsequentlyVoodoooo anHoodoooo allowed weaker parties in creative productions to triumph over more powerful opponents through charms, spells, and curses (Dutton, 1993). This makes its use a direct representation of the power that African Americans, including H. Lawrence, yearned for.
2.3.1 African American Spiritualism in Lawrence Freeman’s Productions
The spiritual influence of Voodoo and Hoodoo on Lawrence Freeman is evident in his 1928 production, Voodoo (Davis, 2008). Voodoo is an opera in three acts, with accompanying music and libretto (Dutton, 1993). It pioneered on September 10, 1928, at the Palm Garden in New York City. The piece is set in Reconstruction-era Louisiana, where Cleota, a house servant, falls in love with the plantation overseer, Mando. However, the resident voodoo queen, Lolo, perceives Cleota as a challenger and tries to kill her. Therefore, she leads a voodoo ceremony where she and her assistant Fojo distribute amulets and charms to attendees who then retreat to invoke the snake-god (Dutton, 1993). However, Mando and Chloe rescue Cleota just in time, although a subsequent attempt to kill Cleota results in Lolo’s death.
Voodoo is a battle between Christianity and traditional African gods with extensive use of spirituals to drive the plot (Dutton, 1993). The plot is a classic love triangle involving one man and two women, where one rejects her Christian faith to use the mystical powers oVoodoooo. Lolo evokes a giant snake and magic tree and manages to kill her target, who is later revived using miracle water, thereby positioning it as a struggle between the white man’s religion and the traditional African religion.
“embedded in that western classical high-art music tradition…he also uses these American
forms”–embedding spirituals like “Go Down Moses” and “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” in thOperara, along with ragtime music and popular dance forms like the cakewalk
2.4 Harlem Renaissance and Entrepreneurship
The Harlem Renaissance coincided with the era of “public amusements” where mass entertainment, in the form of silent film palaces, phonograph parlors, and dancehalls, revolutionized American leisure (Mitchell, 2010). As demand for this novel leisure rose, mass-culture entrepreneurs created alluring and accessible forms of entertainment that catalyzed the growth of a consumer economy. However, the prominence of blacks in the new mass economy revealed dissonances in American attitudes towards race and culture (Mitchell, 2010). By the end of the century, white Americans were engaged in a heated debate about the growing “Negro Problem.” While ostensibly fought to end slavery, the Civil War did not address the citizenship status of African Americans. While whites accepted the end of slavery, they could not reconcile racial equality due to historical and fallacious notions of racial superiority.
Many of the emerging African American intellectuals, creatives, and professionals were aware of the power of popular culture in shaping a group’s public identity, and social identity. As noted by W. E. B. Du Bois, African Americans faced a dilemma in that their American identity was contingent in the eyes of the white majority (Blum, 2009; Du Bois, 2014). They had to constantly prove their worthiness for inclusion into American society leading to the development of a double consciousness where colored people would look at themselves through the eyes of others. The earlier forms of minstrel culture that shaped popular perceptions of African American entertainers are buffoons, thereby limiting blacks from pursuing other artistry forms compounded the challenges (Mitchell, 2010). The African American intellectuals also feared that emerging mass culture would intensify and perpetuate racial stereotypes, which would worsen the Negro’s position (Woodson, 1990; Wittmer, 2015).
When African American entrepreneurs ventured into the marketplace of the early 20th century, they invariably became involved in ongoing debates about the appropriateness and utility of popular culture.
2.4.2 Freeman’s Influence on African-American Entrepreneurship
Freeman envisioned the “Negro Grand Opera” as distinctly American and continuing the global project he had begun (Davis, 2008). He encouraged the intellectual development of other minority groups such as [American] Indians, Mexicans, and oriental peoples.
Freeman’s plan on how to produce and publicize his operas began as early as 1913 when he began conceptualizing a black opera company (Mitchell, 2010). He originally intended to name it the Colored Grand Opera Company of New York, although it was incorporated as the Negro Grand Opera Company in 1920 (Floyd Jr, 1988).
Nevertheless, an analysis of modern American Opera shows that racial prejudices persist in an overwhelmingly white industry.
Music
There is an oft-bemoaned stagnation in classical music programming where most compositions conform to traditional European standards. However, this critique focuses on productions by a very small minority of white male composers, which indicates the lack of diversity in the profession (Ziegel, 2011). While people of color have always made contributions to tOperara and classical music in New York and around the world, they have rarely received widespread acclaim. The institutional interest has multiple negative side effects: Each performance featuring and exclusively white cast and composer reinforces the exclusion of African Americans from musical history (Ziegel, 2011).