Catacombs of Rome:
Catacomb of San Callisto
Introduction
In Ancient Rome, it was popular for pagans to cremate the body of the dead. The ashes were preserved in urns and then stored in houses and sacred places. However, the Christians did not practice cremation since they believed in the resurrection of the soul.[1] Instead, Christians preferred to bury their dead. However, burying dead bodies demanded large areas of land which the Christians did not have at the time due to a law prohibiting them from owning land.[2] Therefore, they settled on catacombs, which served as underground cemeteries.[3] Besides strengthening their belief in the resurrection, the Christians used the catacombs to display their art and symbols. Some people perceived the catacombs as a hiding place, an assumption that was quickly dismissed due to the close proximity between the catacombs and the main roads, and besides, the rotting bodies must have made the conditions in catacombs unbearable.[4] Constructing the catacombs was easy given that they were established on grounds with soft rocks, making it possible to construct multileveled catacombs. Research indicates that “the catacombs were carved out of tufa – a soft and porous volcanic stone that is surprisingly str[5] Eventually, when Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire, the purpose of the catacombs changed significantly. Catacombs became a place of pilgrimage besides being a burial place. After the establishment of cathedrals, the catacombs became a memorial place for prosecuted Christians. The catacombs are home to a diverse collection of Christian art.[6]
Description and History
The Catacomb of San Callisto is one of the most prominent of the catacombs. It occupies approximately 15 hectares of land with over 500,000 graves and stretches for over twenty kilometers. The catacomb was established in the 2nd century CE and was named after Pope Callixtus I, who was murdered in Travestevere in 222 while celebrating mass.[7] Callixtus oversaw the extension of the San Callisto catacombs extension between 217and 222 AD.[8] Later, in his effort to honor the Roman martyrs, Pope Damascus expanded the catacomb of San Callisto to make it easy for worshipers to access the martyrs’ graves. San Callisto catacomb consists of four levels with five sections and is estimated to have over 170,000 graves. [9] Channels interconnect the rooms, and the walls of the chambers have holes big enough to bury two to three people.
Figure: A Cubicle for dead bodies 1[10]
Besides the holes, some cubicles were large enough, and most were reserved for burying people from the same family (see fig, 1). Other than that, some cubicles were used to bury multiple bodies. However, the most visited areas of the catacomb are the graves of the popes, Saint Cecilia, and sacraments. The end of the third century saw the construction of Saint Gaius and Eusebius sections of the San Callisto catacomb[11]. Subsequent centuries saw the development of the western section and the Liberian section, which had different designs. For instance, Pope Damasus replaced the stairway to the crypt of the popes with a more contemporary one. In the tomb of the popes, nine affiliates of the major seminary of priests were buried together with eight legislatures of the clerical hierarchy. On the walls near the affiliate’s graves, their names have been inscribed in the Greek language. A variety of artistry is displayed in the catacombs ranging from frescos representing baptism and Eucharist to a child’s coffin with relief sculptures showing various events in the Bible[12].
Artworks
The type of art found in the catacomb is dissimilar from the traditional Roman art of the time, which could be interpreted as a sign of anticipation and optimism in times when death crept in the Christian society. The paintings try to depict the religious experience of the Christians under the Roman regime with most symbols representing their hardships[13].
Figure 2
The art represents Paleochristian art that existed between the first to sixth centuries, influenced by ancient Greek and Roman art. The paintings in the catacomb are perceived to reveal about the lifestyle of the Christians of that era[15]. The Christian leaders employed the artists, and their works communicated the message that there was hope in resurrection[16]. Based on the number of colors, the artists had limited colors to choose from and used aggressive brushstrokes. The images on the walls evoke purpose, but some are worn out due to free movement of air and varying temperatures in the catacomb. The sculptures were made from stone materials and were well preserved while the coffins were made from limestone[17].
Figure: The Good Shepherd 3[18]
Some of the coffins had reliefs on the sides and even on the top marble (see figure 3). Others only had one or two side sculptures, especially the front side. The relief sculptures on the coffins showed a part of Jesus’ life, a significant event in thBiblele and not so often, a figure of the departed. Also, there are inscriptions, symbols, and signs in Latin and Greek on the walls of the catacomb[19]. For example, figure 3 shows an image of a “Good Shepherd,” carrying a lamb representing Christ and a saved soul. Figure 4 (Palm branches symbol) includes an inscribed message that is derived from thBiblele, symbolizing a sign of victory in Heaven for the believers of Christ.
figure 5: The monogram of Christ
The catacombs have Christian messages written by the first pilgrims who worshipped in the catacombs. Foexamplele, the monogram of Christ (Figure 5), which was placed on a tombstone to show that a Christian was buried there, represents the first two letters of the Greek Word “Christo’s” or Christ.[20]
Most of the catacombs, especially in the crypt of the pope, have both known and unknown figures represented by the frescoes and sculptures. Foexamplele, in figure 6, the image depicts a praying person with the arms spread out.[21] The image is named the “orante” and symbolizes the soul who lives in divine peace.
Figure 6: “Orante” or praying figure[22]
Perhaps the most beautiful and noteworthy frescoes in the Catacombs of San Callisto are the good shepherd, the Eucharistic, the procession, the baptism, and one depicting fish and loaves. The good shepherd, who is hoisting a sheep is the most repeated theme, was painted in the middle of the third century.[23]
Figure: The Good Shepherd 7[24]
The shepherd depicted in the good shepherd fresco in figure 7 is Jesus Christ. The story behind the good shepherd painting is that Jesus left a large flock of sheep unattended to go and search for a single lost sheep. It shows the kind of loving attention that Jesus gives to individuals amongst the multitude. What remains of this painting is simply a rough sketch composed of dull green and soil colors. The figure in itself is smaller compared to the other paintings on the same wall[25].
The baptism fresco shows one larger man pouring water on the head of a smaller man. The water and the bodies of the people in the painting have a brownish-red color, with the water flowing on the other man being represented by faint lines. The water’s layer is greasy black paint, and it only rises to the ankle level of the two men (see figure. 8). The fresco is interpreted to represent the baptism of a Christian. The Christians considered baptism as a ritual where one publicly declared to be a Christian. Baptism was believed to be the only way in which a Christian could attain everlasting life. Baptism image was a significant art to the early Christians since it was a reminder of when they were spiritually ‘born again.’ That meant that they officially became Christians even though they could be prosecuted or killed as a result[26].
Figure: The Baptism Fresco 8[27]
The fish and loaves fresco (Figure 9) have a mixture of brown, black, and grey color. The loaves of bread are brown, while the fish has a combination of different colors. Two fish are lying flat, and a basket containing five loaves is placed on top of the fishes.
Figure: Fish and five loaves of bread 9[28]
The fresco in figure 9 depicts an event in which Jesus was able to miraculously feed a multitude of people with just two fish and five loaves. The paintings reminded the Christians of how their Lord was able to provide for them and was a source of great motivation for them.
Figure: Eucharistic fresco 10[29]
The Eucharistic fresco in the Liberian section shows two people about to partake a meal consisting of bread and wine (see figure 10). The fresco painting is mainly maroon in color with white areas. There are dark areas that depict the outline of the images and the meal. The meal is placed on a table, and the two people are standing. According to Christians, eating of bread and drinking of wine symbolized eating of Jesus’ flesh and drinking of his blood[30].The Christians were supposed to drink wine and eat bread as an act sacrifice that Jesus Christ gave. The painting was symbolic of Jesus’ love Jesus towards His people to the extent that he gave his life. Taking bread and wine helped the Christian to show their faithfulness to Christianity despite the prosecutions[31].
Other symbols found in the catacombs include a peacock, a dove, and an anchor. The peacock represents the immortality of the spirit, the dove represents the harmony and joy of the heart, and the anchor symbolizes the Christians’ trust in Jesus Christ[32].(see figure 11 & 12)
Figure: The dove 11[33] Figure: Anchor 12[34]
Figure 13: The Peacock symbol [35]
In the sea world, the anchor is supposed to hold a ship at a dock firmly. Likewise, the faith and hope Christians have in Jesus are meant to keep them healthy and firm. The anchor gained more meaning when it was turned such that it looked like a cross. Trust in Jesus depicted the safe harbor of deliverance, which was a result of his renaissance after death[36]. Also, there was a fish symbol (see figure 14), which was a representation of Jesus and his followers. The symbol is about the Christian Bible, where Jesus tells his disciple Peter that “I will make you fishers of men” (Matthew 4:19).
Figure: The Fish Symbol 14[37]
Conclusion
The San Callisto catacombs are rich with the history of Christians. Through the catacombs, one can learn how the Christians developed from the time Christianity was prohibited to the time when religion was made legal. The art represents Christian persecutions as well as the influence of the Roman regime on Christianity. Most of the paintings and messages in the catacomb were done during the difficult times of Christianity. Some of the artworks, such as the frescoes came to be idolized years later after the end of the Roman regime and continue to gain significance due to their history.
Bibliography
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Beckwith, John, Richard Krautheimer, and Slobodan Ćurčić. Early Christian and Byzantine Art. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.
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Klingshirn, William E., and Linda Safran. The Early Christian Book (CUA Studies in Early Christianity). Washington: CUA Press, 2007.
Lassus, Jean. The Early Christian and Byzantine World. 1967.
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[2] “Italy – Catacombs of San Callisto,”
[3] Amelia Trematerra and Gino Iannace, “The acoustics of the catacombs of “San Callisto” in Rome,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 134, no. 5 (2013): xx, doi:10.1121/1.4830465.
[4] “The acoustics of the catacombs of “San Callisto” in Rome,”
[5]ong.” Bodel, John. “From columbaria to catacombs: collective burial in pagan and Christian Rome.” Commemorating the Dead. Texts and Artifacts in Context. Studies of Roman, Jewish, and Christian Burials (2008): 177-242.
[6] John Beckwith, Early Christian, and Byzantine Art (1979), 120.
[7] Tickets, Colosseum R. “Catacombs of Callixtus (Catacombe di San Callisto).” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified October 09, 2018. https://www.ancient.eu/image/9304/.
[8] The acoustics of the catacombs of “San Callisto” in Rome.”
[9] The acoustics of the catacombs of “San Callisto” in Rome,”
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[11] Eduard Syndicus, Early Christian Art (London, Burns, 1962), 45.
[12] Early Christian Art
[13] Jean Lassus, The Early Christian and Byzantine World (1967), 212.
[14] “Painting in the Early-Christian Catacomb of San Callisto (Saint Calixte Catacomb), 3rd Century. | Christian Art, Catacombs, Early Christian,” Pinterest, accessed April 10, 2020, https://www.pinterest.com/pin/358176976584464636/.
[15] Robert Milburn and Robert L. Milburn, Early Christian Art and Architecture (Oakland: University of California Press, 1988), 375.
[16] Jean Lassus, The Early Christian and Byzantine World (1967), 501.
[17] Early Christian Art and Architecture, 376.
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[19] Jean Lassus, The Early Christian and Byzantine World (1967), 602.
[20] Osborne, John. “The Roman Catacombs in the Middle Ages.” Papers of the British School at Rome 53 (1985): 278-328.
[21] John Beckwith, Richard Krautheimer, and Slobodan Ćurčić, Early Christian and Byzantine Art (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), 322.
[22] “Painting in the Early-Christian Catacomb of San Callisto (Saint Calixte Catacomb), 3rd Century. | Christian Art, Catacombs, Early Christian,” Pinterest, accessed April 10, 2020, https://www.pinterest.com/pin/358176976584464636/.
[23] John Beckwith, Early Christian, and Byzantine Art (1979), 345.
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[25] John Beckwith, Richard Krautheimer, and Slobodan Ćurčić, Early Christian and Byzantine Art (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), 423.
[26]. John Beckwith, Early Christian and Byzantine Art (1979), 120.
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[29] “Painting in the Early-Christian Catacomb of San Callisto (Saint Calixte Catacomb), 3rd Century. | Christian Art, Catacombs, Early Christian,” Pinterest, accessed April 10, 2020, https://www.pinterest.com/pin/358176976584464636/.
[30] Jean Lassus, The Early Christian and Byzantine World (1967), 124.
[31] William E. Klingshirn and Linda Safran, The Early Christian Book (CUA Studies in Early Christianity) (Washington: CUA Press, 2007), 254.
[32] William E. Klingshirn and Linda Safran, The Early Christian Book (CUA Studies in Early Christianity) (Washington: CUA Press, 2007), 262.
[33] “Painting in the Early-Christian Catacomb of San Callisto (Saint Calixte Catacomb), 3rd Century. | Christian Art, Catacombs, Early Christian,” Pinterest, accessed April 10, 2020, https://www.pinterest.com/pin/358176976584464636/.
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[36] Eduard Syndicus, Early Christian Art (London, Burns, 1962), 273.
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