An account of intellectual virtue in Descartes’ writings
Passions of the soul
To understand the passions that arise from the soul, one must distinguish the soul’s function from those of the body (Cottingham, John, et al 327). What to the soul is passion is usually action to the body. To identify passions, an individual needs to determine which between the body and the soul ought to be attributed to the functions present in them. While anything we experience within us and which we can see in inanimate bodies can be attributed to the body, anything we cannot conceive as belonging to the body belongs to the soul. Passions come from thoughts that emanate from the soul. Our thoughts are of two kinds; some are actions of the soul and others are its passions. Those that are its actions are human volitions and are experienced directly from the soul. The passions of the soul are the various perceptions of modes of knowledge present in humans for the soul is not responsible for their existence but a receiver of the things they represent (Cottingham, John, et al 342). Descartes thus defines the passions of the soul as the perceptions, sensations, and emotions of the soul which refer particularly to it and which are caused, maintained, and strengthened by the movement of the fine parts of the blood called spirits (Cottingham, John, et al. 338). Passions are perceptions because they come from external influences and are not thoughts of the soul. They are sensations because the soul receives them similar to other external objects. They are rightfully called emotions because they agitate the soul more than any other thoughts arising from within it. Those who feel strongly about their passions are not particularly those who understand them best but rather those who have an obscure alliance between the body and the soul (Cottingham, John, et al 335). The spirits, which are small bodies representing the finer parts of the blood, serve the purpose of distinguishing our passions from our volitions and to explain the causes of those passions hence distinguishing it from other sensations (339).
The Principle effect of passions
The principle effect of all human passions is that they move the soul to yearn for things and prepare the body for those things. In this regard, the feeling while the feeling of courage moves the soul to fight, that of fear moves the soul to flee and that of love moves the soul to persevere (Cottingham, John, et al 343). Passions depend on the actions which are responsible for them and can only be changed indirectly by the soul unless it is the cause for those passions.
Why the soul is incapable of having full control of passions
As mentioned earlier, passions are caused and strengthened by the movement of the spirits. The latter is often accompanied by the disturbance which occurs in the heart and the blood. The presence of these disturbances means that our passions are present in the mind the same way that the objects of senses are present when acting upon the sense organs. The soul can easily overcome the less powerful passions but not the violent ones unless the disturbance of the spirits recedes (Cottingham, John, et al 345).
Souls can be directed to acquire absolute power over their passions.
Although the movement of spirits represents certain objects to the soul and is interconnected with the movements that produce particular passions in the soul, through habit and practice the former and the latter can be separated. Animals just like humans have the movement of spirits that causes passions. Their passions are however unaccompanied by reason and are only meant to strengthen their muscle movements. Nevertheless, animals like dogs can be trained to respond differently to their passions. This exemplifies that humans have the innate capacity to control their passions by adopting different habits and responses. Even those with the weakest souls can control their passions if they apply sufficient effort in training and guiding these passions.
Causes of passions
Passions are caused when the soul acts as it sets itself to conceive an object or by present impressions in the brain and the body’s temperament (Cottingham, John, et al 371). All passions are excited by objects that stimulate the senses and which also cause them. For an individual to discover his passion, he needs to discover the fundamental impact of these objects. The objects which stimulate the senses do not excite different passions in people because of their differences but rather because of the several ways in which they can be of importance to people.
The function of passions
The role of passions is to crave things that nature deems useful to us and to persist in this volition and move the spirits of the body to attain these passions (Cottingham, John, et al 372). This explains why passions are enumerated by an examination of several ways through which they are important to humans who possess them.
Different Types of Passions
Wonder.
This is the first of all passions. It occurs when humans encounter an object for the first time and are astonished when they find out it is different from how they previously thought of it. Wonder is fascinating because it has no opposite. People have no passion for things that do not astonish them.
Esteem and contempt, humility and objectness and generosity or pride
Wonder is linked to either esteem or contempt based on how people perceive an object as either valuable or insignificant. People can develop either esteem or contempt for themselves which further leads to vanity, objectness, and associated habits.
Veneration and scorn
When contempt or esteem is drawn to an object considered as capable of either good or evil, contempt becomes scorn as esteem turns into veneration.
Love and hatred
All the preceding passions arise without regarding whether or not the causative objects are good or evil. However, when people regard something as good or beneficial to them, they develop a love for it. Similarly, when people regard something to be harmful or evil they develop hatred for it.
Desire
This is a passion that exists in the hope of a good future. It arises when people yearn for good things they still do not possess or when they wish to stay away from possible harm in the future. Other passions include hope, confidence, despair, remorse, self-satisfaction and repentance, gratitude, anger and indignation, pride and shame, cheerfulness disgust, and regret.
Thoughts about this account
Descartes’s explanation of human passions uncovers the possibility of life after death. The soul according to Descartes is different from the body and responsible for human thoughts and passions. However, the survival of the soul is dependent on the existence of the human body outside of which the soul departs. This explanation of the soul is a reflection of Descartes’s beliefs in a life after death. The soul continues to exist outside the human body but is unable to create thoughts and passions. Descartes fails to delve into the intricate details surrounding where the soul departs to and whether or not it is assigned to a different human body or floats around eternally. It also appears that the soul is more important than the body because its existence is eternal and not based on the existence of the human body.
Additionally, the soul is responsible for our behavior. The actions of our bodies are merely a reaction to what lies in our souls. Based on Descartes’s description of passions, a soul that is full of evil, regret, and hate will automatically be accompanied by undesirable behavior to match it while that which is joyous, loving, and generous will be accompanied by desirable and admirable behavior. To correct a behavior, therefore, an individual must intentionally aim at correcting the contents of his soul through developing positive thoughts that lead to positive passions and desirable actions.
Problems, things missing, or particularly good aspects
One of the most remarkable parts of Descartes’s account is the manner in which he puts passions in a hierarchy beginning from the most important to the least important. Most of the passions that appear at the top of the list are those which are beneficial to human beings while those which are less important are mostly harmful. All the passions are interconnected with each leading to the birth of another. Descartes leaves out scientific proof to support his concept of blood movement and the corresponding formation of spirits and passions. His account of passions is therefore limited to his thoughts and cannot, therefore, be taken as the gospel truth. In the world of science, there is no mention of spirits or even the soul. The body is believed to be solely responsible for itself and its systems without any attachment to a supernatural or foreign element that guides it. Scientists analyze behavior as a response to the mind which also responds to external stimulation rather. Descartes should have given more insight with regard to his belief in the existence of the soul. Since many people do not believe in life after death his views are only limited to those who believe in the afterlife.
Works Cited
Cottingham, John, et al. “The Philosophical Writings of Descartes: Volume. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.