A literature review of marijuana
Introduction
Marijuana refers to a psychoactive drug that is obtained from the cannabis plant and mainly applied for recreational or medical purposes (Vij, 2012). Marijuana has been put into three main categories, cannabis ruderlis, indica, and sativa. Cannabis sativa is quite popular and widely used compared to the other categories. .it has a higher ability to producing oil and fiber (Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1993). The key psychoactive element of marijuana is tetrahydrocannabinol, which forms part of the 483 identifiable compounds from the plant (Booth, 2005). Cannabis can be applied as an extract in food mixture, vaporizing, and even though smoking (NIDA, 2014).
Uses of marijuana
- Medical uses
Medical cannabis has been defined as the use of marijuana together with its cannabinoids for the treatment of diseases or improvement of the body systems. However, a single definition that has been agreed upon does not exist (Murnion, 2015). Doweiko (2009) observed that physicians from Chinese communities used cannabis to treat some diseases. They include malaria and constipation. However, it was also used as an anesthetic in surgery and childbirth. Many claims have been put forward that marijuana can be used in treating muscle spasms, chronic pain, improvement of appetite to the people living with HIV/Aids, reduction of nausea and vomiting when undergoing chemotherapy. However, limited evidence is available to comprehensively deduce such a medical conclusion (Jensen and Wallace, 2015). Nature medicine (2015) poses that comprehensive scientific researches on marijuana as medicine has been made difficult because of many constraints and the fact that it has been categorized as an illegal drug many governments all over the world today.
Some researchers reported that patients seen in a pain clinic
were at increased risk for the use of marijuana; for example, one study
of these patients with 21, 746 urine specimens found 13.0% inci
dence of urine with cannabis (THC); also, 4.6% were positive for
cocaine and 1.07% were positive for methamphetamine. (32). A
case-crossover research design study noted that cannabis was a
trigger for the onset of cocaine use even when genetic influences and
various environmental conditions were held constant (33).
CANNABINOIDS
Cannabis
- Recreational uses
When used, cannabis has been found to have a physiological and psychoactive effect on users (Onaivi and Marzo, 2005). The immediate result that the user’s desire is a rise in awareness of the sensation change in the conscious perception, euphoria as well as the perceived libido increase(Osborne, 2008). Shufman (2005) observed that marijuana distorts the understanding of the space and the time. If the user has applied beyond the limit, it affects his or her selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some incidences, the use of marijuana results in dissociative conditions depersonalization.
- Spiritual uses
In several religions, cannabis has held a sacred status among the people. It has been used in serving the role of an entheogen. This is a chemical substance applied in shamanic, religious, or spiritual contexts (Souza, 2008). In the Indian subcontinent, it was used as a drug for eliminating sorrow and anguish. Within modern times, marijuana has been used by the Rastafarian movement group as a sacrament. They also use it as a mediation aid (Onaivi, 2005).
Adverse effects marijuana use
- Short term effects
In short term consequences, the results of using marijuana are determined by the dosage. Also, the mode used by the user for ingestion has influence. The user’s earlier experiences of cannabis, as well as the social background with which the user applies marijuana also determines its immediate consequences (Hall and Degenhardt, 2009).
Marijuana and psychiatric reaction
Marijuana has been found to affect the psychiatric reaction. A survey has shown that acute and psychiatric adverse response that affects many of the marijuana users is anxieties and psychotic symptoms (Hall, 2009). A sample from the community showed that 22% of cannabis users experienced panic attacks after use. Thomas (1996) observed that the users who are intoxicated with marijuana experiences memory loss for some time. According to Tapert and Jacobus (2009), marijuana users who have been highly intoxicated are likely to experience impaired judgment that results in dangerous behavior like engaging in unprotected sex. It also leads someone to drive while intoxicated, leading to the occurrence of accidents.
Cannabis effects on driving
Research analyzing the pharmacological result of marijuana established that it affects the processes needed for safe driving. The processes affected include attention, reaction time, and tracking (McDonald, 2003). Smiley (1999) observed that experimental researches have shown small to a moderate dose of cannabis has a modest effect on driving. The use of marijuana by the driver reduces his or her attention. Also, it affects the drivers in terms of response to an unexpected situation. A study on the non-clinical sample showed a link between the use of cannabis unintended non-traffic injuries (Macdonald, 2003).
- Marijuana long term effects
Cognitive impairment to users
An experimental survey comparing the chronic users of marijuana and subject control revealed that the constant users of cannabis had impaired visual search skills that are essential for conduction out daily life tasks like safe driving and even reading (Radach and Kunert, 2009. Within a short period of abstaining from using marijuana, experimental research revealed that chronic adult users have challenges in terms of attention, learning ability as well as the memory (Jacobus, 2009).
Marijuana and violence or crime
The use of marijuana has been liked with violence. However, researches trying to make a casual association between the use of marijuana and violence have experienced mixed results (MacDonald, 2003). Within the treatment population, cocaine and alcohol were seen to lead to the prevalence of violence. However, when accounting for other factors, the frequency of marijuana use showed no connection with violence (MacDonald, 2008). Through the use of longitudinal researches, the use of cannabis has been revealed to have a relationship with future criminal charges. However, the charges seem to be characterized by drug relations (Pedersen and Skardhmar, 2009).
Cannabis impact on mental health
Risks related to schizophrenia are prevalent among people who consume marijuana. Through longitudinal researches, it has been observed that users of marijuana have an increased likelihood of developing schizophrenia. Those who are frequent users have increased risk of diagnosis (Hall, and Degenhardt, 2006). Based on researches, an estimate of 14% of schizophrenia cases could have been avoided with the prevention of marijuana use (Moore and burke, 2007). The meta-analysis report indicated a connection between the use of marijuana and depression. However, the evidence does not have strength when compared with psychosis and marijuana use. A connection between marijuana use and suicide has also been confirmed through meta-analysis. However, causation still has remained unclear (Moore, 2007).
Respiratory system and marijuana usage
Moore and Crothers (2007) observed that the smoke from marijuana has carcinogens. The people who are chronic users of marijuana in terms of smoking experiences coughs, and irritation on their throats. All those symptoms are persistent to the heavy smokers of marijuana. They also appear to have other symptoms related to chronic bronchitis (Sears, 2004). Researches also indicate that the heavy and chronic users of marijuana have increased risk of suffering cancer problem (Kalant, 2004).
Dependence result of marijuana usage
Research among the users of marijuana in the USA indicated that marijuana dependence is the third most popular type of substance dependence. About 8.5% of the USA population will go through marijuana usage disorder within their lifetime (Ruan and Grant, 2006). Reports from longitudinal researches show that initiating the use of marijuana during adolescence contributes to an amplified risk of future dependence. One marijuana user will go on and become dependent on six from those who initiate use while on the adolescence period. Weekly or daily uses of marijuana also lead to future dependence (Hall, 2009). The symptoms resulting from marijuana usage withdrawal are the mood disturbance, stomach pains, distortion of appetite, insomnia, restlessness. These symptoms can be seen after two weeks, with daily usage of marijuana (Ashton, 2001).
Conclusion.
Cannabis is being used in some countries, while others it is prohibited. While some argue that it has benefits like medicinal value, recreation, and spiritual gains, many pieces of research are indicating that it has adverse effects on human beings. More research needs to be done to compressively inform the view of the health benefits of using marijuana.
References
Ashton, C. H. (2001). Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: a brief review. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 178(2), 101-106.
D’Souza, D. C., Sewell, R. A., & Ranganathan, M. (2009). Cannabis and psychosis/schizophrenia: human studies. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 259(7), 413-431.
Davis, J. M., Mendelson, B., Berkes, J. J., Suleta, K., Corsi, K. F., & Booth, R. E. (2016). Public health effects of medical marijuana legalization in Colorado. American journal of preventive medicine, 50(3), 373-379.
Grinspoon, L., & Bakalar, J. B. (1993). The history of cannabis. Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine, 1-23.
Hall, W., & Degenhardt, L. (2009). Adverse health effects of non-medical cannabis use. Lancet, 374, 1383-1391.
Huestegge, L., Radach, R., Kunert, H.J. (2009). Long-term effects of cannabis on oculomotor function in humans. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 23(6), p. 714-722.
Jacobus, J., Bava, S., Cohen-Zion, M., Mahomood, O., & Tapert, S.F. (2009). Functional consequences of marijuana use in adolescents. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 92, p. 559-565.
Kalant, H. (2004). Adverse effects of cannabis on health: an update of the literature since 1996. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 28, 849-863.
Kalant, H. (2004). Adverse effects of cannabis on health: an update of the literature since 1996. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 28, 849-863.
Macdonald, S., Anglin-Bodrug, K., Mann, R.E., Erickson, P., Hathaway, A., Chipmanc, M., and Rylett, M. (2003). Injury risk associated with cannabis and cocaine use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 72 (2) p. 99–115.
Moore, T.H.M., Zammit, S., Lingford-Huges, A., Barnes, T.R.E., Jones, P.B., Burke, M., & Lewis, G. (2007). Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: A systematic review. Lancet, 370, p. 319-328.
Murnion, B. (2015). Medicinal cannabis. Australian prescriber, 38(6), 212.
Onaive, E. S., Sugiura, T., & Di Marzo, V. (Eds.). (2005). Endocannabinoids: the brain and body’s marijuana and beyond. CRC Press.
Onaivi, E. S., Sugiura, T., & Di Marzo, V. (Eds.). (2005). Endocannabinoids: the brain and body’s marijuana and beyond. CRC Press.
Osborne, G. B., & Fogel, C. (2008). Understanding the motivations for recreational marijuana use among adult Canadians. Substance use & misuse, 43(3-4), 539-572.
Pedersen, W. & Skardhamar, T. (2009). Cannabis and crime: findings from a longitudinal study. Addiction, 105, 109-118
Shufman, E., & Witztum, E. (2000). Cannabis–a drug with dangerous implications for mental health. Harefuah, 138(5), 410-3.
Stinson, F.S., Ruan, W.J., Pickering, R., & Grant, B.F. (2006). Cannabis use disorders in the USA: prevalence, correlates, and comorbidity. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1447-1460.
Taylor, D.R., Poulton, R., Moffitt, T.E. Ramankutty, P. & Sears, M.R. (2000). The respiratory effects of cannabis dependence in young adults. Addiction, 95, p. 1669-1667.
Vij, V. V., Sharma, V., Kumar, P., & Deshmukh, R. (2014). Herbs as a positive modulator in neuropathic pain and their antinociceptive effect. Innovations in Pharmaceuticals and Pharmacotherapy, 2(3), 378-387.