World History in Asia, Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East
Introduction
During the period from 1920 to 1990, the world evidenced WWI and WWII, economic depression, development of dictatorship, the war in Europe and the Pacific, and the beginning of the nuclear age, among others. In a bid to understand world history, this task will analyze colonization, nationalism, decolonization, and development, in Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. For instance, the Middle East was characterized by border conflicts since the end of the colonial period to the present day. In the same manner, Africa evolved through a period of slavery, colonization, resistance, decolonization, and development. World history from 1920 to 1990 was characterized by wars, colonization, nationalism, and decolonization, and development
History in Africa from 1920 to 1990
The history of Africa between the yeas 1920 to 1990 is about the conquer by European states, resistance from Africans, and consequent development. After the Berlin conference (1884 to 1885), the European powers laid down occupation strategies for navigation and occupation of the coasts of Africa (Dr. Mayer). The arrival of the Europeans in Africa was received with resistance after which the inhabitants were overpowered except for the Ethiopian region that resisted the European conquest. After the territories were conquered, the European administration started to develop the infrastructure to facilitate the transportation of raw materials (Dr. Mayer, n.d.).
WWI was characterized by the invasion of the whites and conquering most parts of Africa. After WWI in 1920, the colonies focused greater attention on the provision of education, health services, and safeguarding of land rights (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 636). Although Ethiopia resisted the colonization earlier successfully, the country was invaded by Italians in 1936 and only regained its independence after WWII. Following WWII, most of the colonial powers in the continent lost their powers in that they were psychologically and physically weakened. As such, the balance of international power got shifted to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) and the United States. For instance, the French rule received significant opposition from 1947 in North Africa with the Algerian revolution occurring in 1954 which extended until 1962. The changing pace also quickened in British territories after WWII with mass parties enrolling a wide array of ethnic, social, and economic groups.
After WWII, most countries were independent and engaged in continuous attempts to decolonize and develop. In the 1970s, most parts of Africa were independent with Portuguese regions such as Cape Verde, Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau gaining its independence in 1975 after many years of struggle (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 637). Soon after, France and Spain relinquished the Spanish Sahara that was later divided into Morocco and Mauritania. Zimbabwe gained its freedom in 1980 with Namibia being the last to become independent in 1990. However, although most parts of the continent were independent, the process of decolonization was characterized by an array of issues including conflicts, diseases, and limited resources.
During this period, the African states faced an array of problems among them being the need to create a nation-state. Although most of the countries retained the boundaries that had been drawn by European administrators, ethnic groups were divided by national boundaries which owed greater allegiance to the tribes than the state, thus facilitating the growth of conflicts (Dr. Mayer). Additionally, the dominant movements and leaders positioned themselves in permanent power after which they urged the prioritization of a single-party state, which was followed by military intervention as a result of their failure to fulfill their promises (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 701). Although the military leaders acted as honest and efficient public guardians, they developed greed and interest in power which was characteristic of the civilian predecessors. As a result, economic development was difficult to achieve due to diminished resources to develop the economies and exploit natural resources.
During the worldwide recession that happened in the 1980s, African nations experienced an array of difficulties that were facilitated by an increase in oil prices. Public discontent was further facilitated by foreign exchange issues and increasing foreign debt coupled with drought and famine in the central and northern regions (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 726). During this period, many refugees fled their countries in search of food, an aspect that increased issues in the countries of residence (Dr. Mayer). Inadequacy in medical resources, education, and poverty facilitated the growth of epidemics such as the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome(AIDS), typhoid, and cholera, among other conditions. Growth in such problems was further aggravated by conflicts in Liberia, Somalia, Southern Africa, and Chad, among other parts that resulted in destabilized government and halted the economic progress, which all led to the death of many Africans (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 725). However, the issues evidenced during this period facilitated the resolution of hostilities in most parts of the continent during the 1990s. For instance, the Angola government and rebel leaders signed into effect a peace accord that facilitated the collaboration and reconciliation of the two groups (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 726). This struggle also facilitated the end of segregation practices in South Africa in 1994 when the country held the first multiracial election in 1994 which facilitated the creation of new power alignments in the country.
History in Latin America from 1920 to 1990
The period from 1920 to 1990 in Latin America was mostly characterized by changes in economic stability, depression, nationalism, and consequent development. During the WWI, the Latin Americans did not feel a sense of strong identification with any of the contending alliances during the event (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 728). Only a few countries such as Brazil followed through the footsteps of the United States to declare war on Germany while Argentina and Mexico viewed them as bullies. Although all countries were affected by the world war, the countries that had penetrated the European markets with exports and had become consumers of the European products such as Argentina were the most affected (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 664). However, although the disruptions caused by the war were temporary, it paved way for postwar booms in 1920, which facilitated the aspect of valorization in a bid to reinstate the economy in the face of persistent weakness. This was followed by a period of economic growth and optimism with foreign investments resuming, most of which came from the United States.
The introduction of foreign capital into the country reinforced the aspect of cultural nationalism and the sentiment of anti-imperialists which was strong in the Caribbean and Mexico following the provocation by the United States. In 1928, the British investors of nitrate in Chile faced labor unrest after the region was hit with serious labor turbulence coupled with simmering conflicts with the government over issues to do with the control of subsoil resources after the constitution declared it as the nation’s exclusive property (Dr. Mayer). The global economic depression in 1929 caused a further escalation of economic nationalism which facilitated the region to face an abrupt end to foreign capital and drastic decline in the exports as well as the government’s ability to import.
This period facilitated the need for attempts to rebuild the economy from economic depression. In a bid to save jobs for native inhabitants, most countries in this region adopted an array of measures such as the requirement of having citizens as the highest proportion of employees coupled with the imposition of restriction for immigrants. In 1945, most parts evidenced changed life particularly in Paraguay and Honduras which was largely isolated and rural (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 730).
Cultural modernity and western politics also included the region’s postwar experience. Since they had not participated in WWII actively, the region did not experience disruptions of existent patterns neither did they enjoy the privileges of new opportunities (Dr. Mayer). There was population growth which facilitated an increase in poverty rates, causing the area to register high disparities in income. During early 1950, the larger part of the population assumed the production of consumer durables and capital goods, an aspect that reduced the region’s dependence on imports.
Post-war period was also characterized by communism and democracy as the main ideological and political choices. Although communism had limited appeal in Latin America at first, it flourished after Khrushchev reinforced national liberation movements. Towards the late 1980s, the country had made significant strides in achieving self-sufficiency in infrastructure, transportation, and agriculture (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 726). However, although ideology and culture played a significant role in making the citizens believe that stability and peace were essential to development, Latin America was plagued with an array of internal conflicts that held its ability to develop through this period.
History in Asia from 1920 to 1990
The colonial powers that ruled Southeast Asia included Spain, Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain. The kingdoms in Southeast Asia thrived through cultural, economic, and commercial relations between West Asia that included the Middle East, South East (India), and East Asia (China). With the arrival of colonialism – Japanese, Europeans, and the U.S. – the countries in this region responded through nationalism and collaboration.
After colonization, Southeast Asia evidenced a period of independence and decolonization. The experience from the colonialists increased anti-colonial and anti-fascist enthusiasm that facilitated the growth of independence movements. Elites in the Asian region responded to the western colonialism in ways that were far from collaboration, adaptation, and resistance. Although the struggle of the traditional elites failed, indigenous and cultural practices surfaced that emphasized the importance of embracing a national identity that was founded on cultural values and traditional religions (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 696). In 1906 for instance, Buddhist associations were established in a bid to reduce the Western influence, among other organizations such as the Gandhi movement that was established in the 1920s in a bid to attain self-rule through legitimate and peaceful methods. The national resurgence was characterized by the development of new political, administrative, and economic elites and the competition between traditional and modern ideals.
After WWII, an array of nationalist forces were formed in Southeast Asia and South that fought against the possible repositioning of the European powers. This was after their influence was weakened by the war which diminished the influence of their colonial holdings (Dr. Mayer). This period was also characterized by the emergence of Asian countries from diverse cultures, rich history, and social transformation from the anti-western and anti-Japanese colonial struggle. In 1946, the Vietnamese resisted French with India and Pakistan gaining their independence shortly after in 1947. China also celebrated the communist victory in 1949 which was followed by the signing of the 30year pact between China and the USSR and the invasion of North Korea South Korea in 1950 (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 697). After the U.S. committed to the growth of Vietnam in 1961, the war escalated in the region in 1965 which spread to Cambodia in the 1970s.
In an attempt to decolonize and achieve their independence, the region was faced with numerous battles that include the release of nuclear weapons by China in 1964 (A-bomb) and 1974 after India exploded a nuclear device. The colonialists pulled out after the establishment of diplomatic relations most of which are still practical to date.
History in the Middle East from 1920 to 1990
After the outbreak of WWI, the Ottomans joined hands with Germany after which the Sultan proclaimed war against the established Entente power. During the war period, most of the Arab empire supported the Islamic cause and the Ottoman empire. During this period, Kuwait was declared a Britain protectorate, collusion that was made in an attempt to block the Ottoman challenge. Additionally, the railway that was sponsored by the Germans through the region was resisted in that it was believed that the railway would pose an undesired threat to the interests of the British in this region and the surrounding areas of India (Dr. Mayer). Although WWI ended with the victory of France and Britain, the colonization of the Arab lands continued thus costing their ability to achieved the aspired level of independence. After Yemen gained its independence from Turkish rule in 1919, the ruler in charge took control of the lands in Saudi Arabia causing the eruption of armed clashes over border disputes.
Unending conflicts were evidenced in the Middle East owing to religious issues and border attacks. This region evidenced the highest conflicts and wars coupled with attacks directed at the religious symbols of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. After WWII, the rea that encompasses the Iran, Iraq, Arabian Peninsula, and the Mediterranean experienced hostilities that were mostly facilitated by the existence of the Jewish state of Israel in the region (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 733). During the climate of the cold war, Israel was viewed by Arab states as western imperial in a territory that belonged rightfully to the Arabs. This climate of conflicts persisted into WWII, which (war) ended with the emigration of most Arabs into the United States to escape the conflicts in the country.
Conflicts continued with the outbreak of the Six-day war in the region which was followed by the intensification of clashes between the Syrian and Israel forces. This event was trailed with the buildup of the Egyptian military in the Sinai border which was coupled with the expulsion of the UN forces and the invitation of Jordan to engage in a holy war by Iraq against the Israelis. During the holy month of Ramadhan in 1973, Syria and Egypt launched surprise attacks – land and air attacks – on the Israel forces that had camped on the Golan Heights and the Sinai desert. The Syrian forces attacked the Israelis and emerged victorious at the Golan heights. These conflicts did not stop and another attack broke out between Iraq and Iran owing to border disputes, a war that lasted for nine years although there were no changes imposed despite the hardship and violence evidenced.
The nations made continuous attempts to reunite in order to reposition themselves against the power of the colonizers. For instance, in 1990, North and South Yemen reunited and formed the Republic of Yemen. However, the conflicts continued with Iraq invading Kuwait in the same year on a claim that Kuwait was part of Iraq before it was created by British during the colonial period in a bid to protect the interests and securities created in the Arabian Peninsula (Von Sivers, Desnoyers, and Stow 735). Even in the present day, conflicts are still rampant in the Middle East, an aspect that has caused the intervention of the international community, with the United Nations and the United States taking the lead in maintaining peace.
Conclusion
World history from 1920 to 1990 was characterized by wars, colonization, nationalism, and decolonization, and development, that was coupled with internal conflicts and inability to manage national resources. Africa evidenced a period of colonization after which individual countries made attempts to gain their independence causing the expulsion of the colonialist from the region. Latin America encountered a period that was characterized by loss of economic significance, after which the country made attempts to restore normalcy in the system. While Asia experienced a period of conflicts after which individual countries developed individually, the Middle East is still experiencing conflicts most of which found stable footage during the period lasting from 1920 to 1990.
Works Cited
Dr. Mayer. “Dr. E’s Social science webzine. Emayzine.com.” Retrieved from http://www.emayzine.com/
Palat, Ravi Arvind. “The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-1991.” (1997): 179-181.
Von Sivers, Desnoyers, C., and Stow, G.B. Patterns of World History. Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.