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Anatomy and Bio

Anatomy and Bio

  1. Name and state the anatomical location of the organs of the urinary system.

Kidneys located underneath the rib cage in the central part of the back.

  1. List the functions of the kidneys (including mon-urinary system function).
  1. Name the major metabolic nitrogenous wastes and identify their sources.
  1. Define excretion and identify the systems that excrete wastes.

Excretion is the procedure where all metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body through the lungs, kidneys, and the skin.

  1. Name and locate the microscopic and macroscopic structures of the kidney.

Microscopic structures-renal cortex, renal medulla, and renal pelvis. Macroscopic structures consist of nephrons located in the medulla.

  1. Describe the microscopic structure of a nephron.

The nephron consists of multitudes of tiny tubules that are mainly situated in the medulla and receive liquids from blood vessels in the renal cortex.

The core parts of the nephron are the renal corpuscle, the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule.

  1. Trace the flow of fluid/blood through the renal tubules and the kidney.

The kidney obtains blood and fluids through the renal artery. The renal artery twigs into reduced blood vessels until the blood reaches the nephrons. Blood is again sieved in the nephrons by tiny blood tubules of the glomeruli. Then, blood flows out of the kidney through the renal vein.

  1. Describe the glomerular filtration membrane and how it excludes blood cells and proteins from the filtrate.

Glomerular filtration membrane is a membrane that comprises of mesangial cells, adapted pericytes which detaches capillaries from each other in body parts. The membrane does not allow hefty molecular weight proteins and blood cells to pass through (Scott & Quaggin, 2015). Negatively charged proteins manage to deter negatively charged materials, which allows positively charged materials to pass readily.

  1. Describe the process of filtration and relate it to net filtration pressure.

Filtration is when the kidney filters unnecessary fluids and wastes products out of the blood into urinal tubules from the kidney. The net filtration pressure is the external pressure subtracted from the inner glomerular filtration pressure.

  1. Describe how the renal tubules reabsorb useful solutes from the glomerular filtrate and return them to the blood.

Useful products are absorbed in the glomerular membrane by the assistance of diffusion during sodium absorption.

  1. Describe the nerve supply to the kidney.

The renal plexus is situated around the renal artery and consists of postganglionic fibers from the systematic nervous system. The nerve fibers from the plexus enter the kidney with the renal artery branches and control the vascular tone and renin secretion.

  1. 12. Describe how the nervous system, hormones, and the kidney regulate glomerular filtration.

Glomerular filtration occurs due to the pressure gradient in the glomerulus. Increased blood capacity and blood gravity rise the Glomerular filtration rate. Compression in the afferent arterioles going into the glomerulus and enlargement of the efferent arterioles coming out of the glomerular reduces the glomerular filtration rate.

  1. Describe how the nephrons regulate water excretion.

Movement of water is controlled by the nephron through sodium chloride that moves in and out, depending on the osmotic pressure. Water moves where there is lower concentration f sodium chloride to the highly concentrated zone with sodium chloride.

  1. 14. Explain the role of the aldosterone and atrial natriuretic factor in sodium and water excretion.

Aldosterone assists in blood pressure maintenance and balances water and salts in the body by allowing the kidneys to retain sodium and excrete potassium. A fall in the aldosterone levels results to lower blood pressure and blood volume resulting from kidneys failures in water regulation and balancing of salts.

  1. Describe the mechanism that maintains the medullar osmotic gradient.

Blood flowing in the capillaries is quite slow; hence there is enough time for reabsorption of solutes into the bloodstream back into the interstitial fluid through diffusion.

  1. Describe the composition and properties of urine.

Urine contains ninety-five percent water concentration and other elements such as creatinine, urea, dissolved irons, sodium, organic compounds, potassium, and organic compounds.

  1. Describe the functional anatomy of ureters, urinary bladder, and the male and female urethra.

Urine is carried away from the kidneys to the urethra by the ureters into the urinary bladder, which is temporary storage for urine. The urethra carries urine out of the body.

  1. Explain the micturition reflex and describe how it controls the voiding urine.

The micturition phase exhibits synchronized relaxation of the internal and external urethra sphincters. It is alternatively controlled under the sympathetic and somatic regulation that operates correspondingly, with strong detrusor shrinkages resulting from parasympathetic impulses.

  1. Fluids and Electrolytes.
  2. Lists the water contents of males, females, and infants, and the factors contributing to the differences in water content among these groups.
  1. Name the fluid compartments and sub-compartments of the body and the relative amount of body fluid in each.

There are three major fluid compartments, namely, Intracellular, intravascular, and interstitial. Two -thirds of water is in the intercellular fluid compartment while the remaining portion is in the extracellular fluid compartment.

  1. Differentiate between electrolytes and non-electrolytes and discuss the relative osmotic pressure of each.

Electrolytes are salts or molecules that ionizes entirely in solutions; hence they gladly conduct electricity while non-electrolytes do not separate into ions in solutions, thus conduct electricity.

  1. Compare the relative solute concentration of specific solutes in the intracellular and extracellular compartments.

In the extracellular compartment, sodium is the major cation and chloride is the primary anion.

In the intracellular, potassium tends to be the main cation.

  1. Describe the mechanisms of fluid movement between fluid compartments.

The fluid compartments’ movement of fluids is assisted by the hydrostatic pressure and through the osmotic gradient. The pressure is caused by force exerted by the fluids against the walls, resulting in fluid movement.

  1. Identify the routes of water intakes and output to and from the body.

Water enters the body through the digestive tract and leaves through the urethra as urine or the skin as sweat.

  1. Explain the thirst mechanism and the cessation of thirst.

The thirst mechanism is the desire of the body to increase water ingestion. Consequently, it is an intake in resort to the discovery of low body fluids deliberated by the osmoreceptors in the anteroventral hypothalamus.

  1. Indicate how shifts in water output by the body occur, and how the body compensates for such shifts.

Shifts in water outputs are caused by dehydration. After dehydration, the hypothalamus releases the antidiuretic hormone, which signals the kidney to recover water from urine, successfully diluting the blood plasma.

  1. Discuss the activity of the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Antidiuretic hormone signals water reabsorption in the kidney tubules. Free water is conveyed back into the blood, resulting in low plasma osmolarity and increased urine molarity. Also, the antidiuretic hormone causes the epithelial cells coating the renal tubules to move water from the inner cells to the apical surface.

  1. Describe the imbalance of fluids homeostasis and its consequences.

A fluid imbalance is caused by hypovolemia leading to trauma development.

  1. Explain how salt is balanced in the body.

Salt balance in the body is maintained by excretion of sodium in the urine and retaining of water in urine. The kidney conserves and releases water by regulating sodium levels, waste products, and potassium.

  1. Describe how sodium regulates fluid and electrolyte balance.

Sodium maintains normal fluid levels in compartments since the levels of fluids contained in compartments depends on the concentration of electrolytes available. Through osmosis, when the electrolyte concentration is high, fluid movement takes place in the compartments.

  1. Identify the mechanisms regulating sodium balance of the body fluids
  1. Examine the mechanisms regulating potassium, calcium, and phosphate balance of the body fluid.

Calcium and phosphates are regulation by parathyroid hormone, dihydroxy vitamin D, and calcitonin, which are released due to calcium levels in the blood.

Potassium is regulated by aldosterone during the reabsorption of sodium in the distal tubule.

  1. Discuss the mechanism regulating anions in the body fluids.

The excretion of ions takes place in the kidney, but some are lost during perspiration and defecation. Excess sweating results in high levels of anion chloride lost. Vomiting and diarrhea reduce levels of both bicarbonate ions and chloride. Modifications in the respiratory and renal functions result in the regulation of anion levels in the extracellular fluids.

  1. PH and Acid Balance
  2. 1. Explain the pH concept and include the numerical meaning of a change in pH (one, two, one-half, and one-tenth).

PH is the measure of hydrogen concentration ions of a solution hence the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a given solution (Gebbie et al., 2017). The PH values range from zero and fourteen, with seven being the neutral measurement.

  1. List the appropriate PH range of the following natural occurring substances:

Intracellular fluid, Arterial blood, Urine, Saliva, Gastric juice, and Sweat.

  1. Define electrolyte and list the major ones, including the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, by name and ionic symbol in human body fluids.

Electrolytes are materials that can completely dissociate into ions in solutions hence capable of conducting electricity. Examples are phosphates, chlorides, sodium, calcium, and potassium.

  1. Explain the functions of hydrogen ions concentrations found in the skin, stomach, blood, urine, and mitochondria.

Hydrogen ions react with weak bases and acids in the body resulting in water production and, hence, balance in the body PH (Towns, Rodriguez, and Marc, 2018)

  1. Indicate the acid produced from the normal metabolism occurring in each body region: aerobic respiration of carbohydrates, anaerobic respiration of cardiocytes, anaerobic respiration of erythrocytes, hydrolysis of phospholipids, degradation of sulfur amino acids, and the normal functioning of stomach’s parietal cells.
  1. Explain why the body naturally tends to enter a state of acidosis during the course of the period.

The body naturally enters acidosis due to the remains of carbon dioxide, which shifts the balance of acids and bases in the body. Carbon dioxide mixes with water in the body, forming carbonic acids, which results in acidosis since the body cannot hold much bicarbonate base in the kidney.

  1. Define the following terms in the contest of chemical structure buffering: strong acid, weak base, strong base, weak acid, and salt.

Weak acid in relation to buffering is the chemical substances that absorb ions hence taking the hydroxyl ions (Chem Educ, 2014).

Weak base in relation to chemical buffering is the substance that takes up the hydrogen ions.

A strong acid in relation to chemical buffering is a substance that, when added to a weak base, reacts with hydrogen ions to form a weak acid.

A strong base in regards to chemical buffering is a substance that, when added to a weak acid, the hydrogen ion from the acid is added to the strong base forming water.

  1. Explain why the body requires the continuous action of chemical buffering systems.

The body requires continuous chemical buffering to maintain the PH within the required limits either by removal or replacement of hydrogen ions.

  1. Explain the relative strength, location, and effectiveness of each of the following buffering systems: hemoglobin buffer, protein buffer, and the phosphate buffer.

Hemoglobin buffer takes place inside the red blood cells during the conversion of carbon dioxide into bicarbonate, hydrogen ions released in the reaction are buffered by hemoglobin, reducing oxygen detachment. Hemoglobin buffering assists in maintaining the PH to normal limits.

Phosphate buffers exist into two forms: weak acids in the form of sodium dihydrogen phosphate and weak base in the form of sodium mono-hydrogen phosphate. The base picks up another hydrogen in when mixed with a strong acid resulting in a weak acid. When combined with a strong base, water is formed.

  1. Utilize the components of each of the four major chemical buffering systems to show how they would work to neutralize acid or base.

In protein buffering, amino acids containing positively charged amino groups and negatively charged carboxyl groups bind with hydrogen and hydroxyl ions causing buffering hence neutralizing the PH.

Hemoglobin buffering leads to oxygen dissociation during the conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate hence maintaining the body PH.

In phosphate buffering, weak acids react with strong acids converting them into the water and weak acids hence sustaining the body PH.

During bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer, sodium bicarbonate reacts with strong acids such as hydrochloric acid, weak acids, and water are formed, resulting in a neutral body PH.

  1. Describe the interaction of the bicarbonates buffer with the respiratory and urinary system to help regulate the body’s acid-base balance.

Dissociation of acids in red blood cells by carbonic anhydrase results in blood being less acidic hence expiration of carbon dioxide through the lungs. The renal system maintains bicarbonate levels in the blood; thus, bicarbonate ions present in the renal filtrate are packed and conserved into the bloodstream.

  1. Indicate the normal range of values for the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate ion concentration in maintaining an arterial PH of 7.35-7.45.

The normal range for the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is between 35 to 45 mmHg.

The usual range of bicarbonate ion in the blood levels is at 23 to 30 mEq/L in adults.

  1. Explain the relationship between each of the following pairs of terms: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and respiratory acidosis, hyperventilation and respiratory alkalosis, diarrhea or uncontrolled diabetes mellitus and metabolic acidosis, and the ingestion of alkaline drugs for stomach ulcer and metabolic alkalosis.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and respiratory acidosis is a condition that develops due to hypercapnia. The respiratory acidosis, on the other hand, worsens this preexisting health complication.

While hyperventilation occurs because of hypoxia, respiratory alkalosis impacts the condition by increase the respiratory rate (Gandhi, Mahajan & Bedi, 2015). Thus, cause hyperventilation.

Diarrhea or uncontrolled diabetes mellitus and metabolic acidosis are connected since they all result in loss of minerals such as potassium in the body.

Ingestion of alkaline drugs for stomach ulcers and metabolic alkalosis is deemed useful in maintaining the acidic levels in the human body.

  1. Xenotransplantation
  2. Briefly discuss xenotransplantation. In your own words, if not, please quote:

Xenotransplantation is the transplant of live cells, organs, and tissues from species into a different species. Examples, pig tissues transplanted into human tissues in the case of an accident.

  1. Define and explain the process of transgenic cells or organs.

The transgenic process involves the introduction of a gene from one living thing into the genome of another living organism to exhibit new characteristics and improved property (Martin, 2017).

  1. Is this new? If not, when did scientists begin using cells from other species for our medical benefit?

Transgenic is not new as it was introduced in 1974 by Rudolf Jaenisch when he modified a mouse.

  1. In what capacity? (when and for what specific medical needs)

The purpose of the procedure determines the capacity of transgenics. Transgenic is done when cells are dead, and there is a need to replace infected parts to reduce the rate of infection.

  1. Name and discuss three major benefits of xenotransplantation.

Treatment of disease through organ transplant hence curing diseases in human beings

Unlimited cell supplies and organs for humans, especially in the case of an accident.

Xenotransplantation has resulted in the improvement of organ function after transgenic is done (Cooper, Ekser & Tector, 2015).

  1. Name and discuss three major detriments or concerns regarding xenotransplantation.

There is a high risk of an animal to human disease and infections due to the introduction of animal organs in the human body (Nanno et al., 2019).

Immune rejection can occur after the tissues fail to attach during transgenic, resulting in rotting of the body.

Patients who offer these organs during the transgenic process are quite venerable to other diseases due to organ exposure (Cooper, Ekser & Tector, 2015).

4.where do you stand? Does the risk outweigh the benefits in your experience?

Transgenic is an essential procedure as lives are saved after organ transplant; hence the benefits outweigh the risks.

  1. Autoimmune Research
  2. 1. What is Kussmaul’s respiration?

Kussmaul respiration is a breathing pattern characterized by deep breathing pains due to an increase in body acidity levels.

  1. Under what type of condition does it occur?

Kussmaul respiration happens in the progressive stage of acidosis.

  1. What is a pyrogen?

Pyrogen is a substance that results in a fever when presented in the blood, especially a bacterium.

  1. 4. What is puss?

Pus is the whitish-yellow liquid with high protein levels that collects at the spot of an infected section of the body.

  1. What is a naïve cell?

Naïve cell is an immature cell that has undergone the negative and positive procedures of central thymus selection.

  1. Define autoimmune disorder.

An autoimmune disorder is an illness that attacks healthy cells of the body’s immune system.

  1. What are goblet cells?

Goblet cell is a cell that secretes the main mucus components and mainly located in the respiratory and intestinal tracts and characterized by a column shape.

  1. What is a surfactant?

Surfactants are substances that cause the lowering of surface tension amid gas and a liquid, amid liquid and solid, and two liquids.

  1. What is chronic bronchitis?

Chronic bronchitis is a viral disorder that improves itself, causing inflammation of the bronchial tubes lining.

  1. 10. Define a pathogen.

A pathogen is a disease-causing organism. It can be either a virus, bacteria, or other disease-causing micro-organisms.

  1. What is an antigen?

An antigen is a poisonous substance which, when introduced into the body, results in the production of antibodies ready to fight off disease in the body (Nanno et al., 2019)

  1. 12. What is an antibody?

An antibody is a large mass of protein produced in the plasma cells to neutralize pathogens by boosting the body’s immunity system (Davis, 2012).

  1. What is perforin?

Perforin is a protein located in the killer cells and granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

  1. What is epitope?

An epitope is a part or position of an antigen molecule where the antibody ascribes itself.

  1. Describe how antibiotics work.

Antibiotics merely attack the linings and coating surrounding bacteria in the body interfering with the bacterial multiplication hence killing and suspending the growth of bacteria.

  1. What is cystic fibrosis?

The cystic disorder is an inherited illness that affects the exocrine glands resulting in abnormal mucus production.

  1. How is cystic fibrosis treated?

Cystic fibrosis is treated by administering medicinal drugs such as penicillin. Also, it can be treated through chest walls vacillation medical actions.

  1. 18. What are natural killer cells?

Natural killer cells are kinds of white blood cells and a constituent of the innate immune system and assists in controlling viral infections.

  1. How does vaccination work?

Vaccination works by preparing the immune system to identify and battle bacteria and viruses.

  1. What role do cilia play in our respiratory tracts?

Cilia help in removing dust and microbes from the lungs.

2 a. Describe how smoking, high blood pressure, and high blood sugar can negatively affect the interaction of our respiratory and lymphatic systems, especially with our circulatory system.

Tobacco results in irritation of the windpipe and voice box hence minimizing the functions of the lungs. Also, irritation from tobacco causes breathing difficulties due to inflammation and thinning of the lung air tubes and excessive mucus present in the lungs.

Blood pressure results in contractions of the arteries and muscles. Blood pressures affect the frequency at which lymph is pressed through the lymphatic vessels.

High blood sugars result in severe damages such as nausea, shortness of breath, and vomiting hence interrupting the typical respiratory system.

  1. Describe the immune response Ann will likely experience.

Ann is likely to experience a quick immune response against the virus. The response involves protein synthesis and stimulation of lymphocytes, which fights the infection.

  1. c. Why did Bob get sick although he had a flu shot?

Bob got sick because there is a likelihood of the flu shot administered to him, did not match the type of flu virus from Ann. Also, for a flu shot to be effective, Bob must have had it two weeks before Ann transmitted the flu virus to Bob.

  1. d. What is the approximate size of a human heart?

The heart of a human is approximately the size of a fist.

  1. The heart is a muscle; it has elasticity. What does that mean? What happens to the heart if it loses elasticity?

The elasticity of the heart means that the organ can regain its normal shape after stretching during inhaling and exhaling processes.

When the heart loses elasticity, it fails to pump blood due to failure in exhaling and inhaling.

  1. What important information have you learned about muscles that would assist in understanding the function of the heart?

The heart’s walls consist of cardiac muscles that relax and expand during inhaling and exhaling; hence, the heart can pump blood into other organs.

  1. 4. What are the four signs of a heart attack?
  1. 5. During and after a heart attack, describe what an abnormal ECG would look like

During an abnormal ECG, there is an absence of P waves.

  1. Discuss what happens immediately when heart cells die? How can an almost blood test tell doctors?

When heart cells die, the heart muscles luck oxygen causing permanent damage to the muscle cells.

  1. 7. What are CPK and troponin?

CPK is a tool used to measure the capability of a procedure to produce outputs in a specified limit. At the same time, troponin is compound of three regulatory proteins that is essential for muscle contractions.

  1. What is ischemia?

Ischemia is a condition where blood flow is restricted in some body parts resulting in a lack of oxygen.

  1. 9. Compare and contrast a heart attack and stroke.

Both heart attack and stroke occur because of clotting in the blood. Alternatively, heart attacks occur when blood is blocked into some body-parts due to clotting while a stroke is induced by the brain when the vessels accumulate blood to the brain clogs.

  1. Why might diabetes contribute to heart disease and myocardial infarction?

Blood vessels can be damaged by high sugar levels in the blood resulting in a heart attack.

  1. 11. Discuss two ways a cardiologist can suggest helping a patient prevent a heart attack with coronary artery disease?

A cardiologist can advise the patient to lower cholesterol levels by eating healthy meals hence reducing risks of a heart attack.

The cardiologist should advise the patient to practice physical exercise hence burning cholesterol levels in the body resulting in lower risks of a heart attack.

  1. Discuss two surgical procedures a cardiologist could use to help a patient survive after a heart attack or blockage?

Patients with a heart attack should undergo coronary artery bypass graft operation because it improves blood supply in the muscles of the heart and decreases chest pains.

Artificial heart valve surgery can also be done as it improves and reinstates valves’ purposes in the heart.

  1. How could hyperkalemia cause a heart attack?

Hyperkalemia results in a clampdown of the heart’s electrical activity, causing the heart to stop pounding. When the potassium heights are low, cells cannot repolarize and are incapable of firing continuously, and this causes the muscles to stop running. In consequence, there will be irregular heartbeats leading to a heart attack.

  1. A fireman sleeping overnight in the firehouse is suddenly startled awake to the sound of the emergency siren. He immediately springs into action to get out of the bed, get dressed, get his gear ready, to hop on the track, and ready to put out the fire in a nearby hospital stairwell.
  2. Discuss the anatomical changes in movement from the moment of stimuli to initial actions.

The stimulus of the fireman is perceived by the sensory neurons. Extra neurons transmit the message to the brain and the spinal cord resulting in information interruption; hence the fireman prepares immediately for his duty.

  1. b. Discuss five systems of the body, how each contributes to allowing the physiological changes to work with the physical changes to maintain homeostasis.

Endocrine and nervous systems maintain homeostasis through the production and release of hormones to body organs by the hypothalamus. In the endocrine system, the stimulus controls hormone production contributing to homeostasis.

The reproductive system in female maintains homeostasis by regulation of vaginal Ph. The reproductive system produces hormones that initiate sexual development. The reproductive system in male regulates homeostasis by controlling testis temperature.

In the respiratory system, homeostasis is maintained by gas exchange in the lungs through exhaling carbon dioxide. Elimination of carbon dioxide out of the body results in a balance of Ph; hence homeostasis is maintained.

The digestive system maintains homeostasis by transferring nutrients into the internal organs. Iron and calcium are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract into the bloodstream, causing an effect in Ph, hence maintaining homeostasis.

The excretory system is one of the primary ways of maintaining homeostasis (Fernández-Real, McClain, & Manco, 2015). The kidney controls the number of ions, water, and glucose in the blood. Waste products eliminated during the excretion process either through sweating or urination results in a balance of body Ph, hence maintaining homeostasis.

  1. c. The changes that occur after the fire has been extinguished, and the fireman’s body returns to a normal state.

After the fire, the fireman’s body perceives negative feedback where stimuli send information to the brain. The information is interpreted, resulting in normal body functions. The hypothalamus reverses the rise in body temperature, promoting a homeostatic response.

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