A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION TOWARDS INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION

by Yang Zou

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfilments

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Education or Doctor of Philosophy

Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA

2020

APPROVED BY:

Name and degree, Committee Chair

Name and degree, Committee Member

ABSTRACT

Bilingual education enables international students with limited English proficiency to develop essential cognitive skills, such as problem-solving, logical explanations, and critical thinking. Learners get the opportunity to express and efficiently convey their thoughts with vocabulary one to tend to possess in each language. The purpose of this phenomenological study is to describe the experiences of international students undertaking bilingual education and how it influences their performance in higher learning institutions. The primary theory guiding this study is Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition, which explains how the acquisition is considered a meaningful form of interaction in a specific language whereby the learners are not concerned with utterances but focuses on the content of the messages (Koceva, 2018). The second theory is constructivism, which is defined as the approach to learning, making individuals have the capacity to construct their knowledge, and learners’ experiences matter a lot. Constructivist teaching is mostly related to the belief that learning happens when learners freely and actively process knowledge (Fernando & Marikar, 2017 ). Descriptive analysis is a data collection element as well as observation and documentation of the study.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Overview

Bilingual education in American society has developed over the years, regardless of the controversial social and cultural issues affecting the integration of native and English languages. The paradox of bilingual education in the literature explained how private schools accepted bilingualism, which was later acknowledged in public institutions. Language minority students faced a lot of criticism and struggled in bilingualism as it was termed as ‘costly ‘ and political destabilization. Learners tend to acquire more language content and concepts for the benefit of improving their linguistic capacity. Bilingual education is a common term in higher education as it refers to academic teaching in two languages, which can be both native and second language ( García & Woodley, 2015 ). The study intends to narrowly examine how bilingual education in higher education, mostly university, impacts students’ performance. Bilingual education in the United States aims to assist limited English proficient individuals in universities to develop different language skills in their other languages, in this case, native language (Gándara & Escamilla, 2017 ). The study tends to elaborate on how the bilingual program promotes performance in higher education. The native language tends to have a beneficial aspect of facilitating skill development in English. According to García & Lin (2017), diverse language practices in bilingual education usually support cultural inclusion and diversity. It is imperative to understand that bilingual education faces a lot of criticism and controversial issues on shortages of teachers in individual states in America and how they affect educational progress among international students.

Background

Historical context

In the United States, the development of bilingual education has faced alot of social, political and cultural issues that affected individuals and groups in attaining another language ( Devlin et al., 2017). The bilingual education in the U.S. involved the instruction in the country school systems whereby English as a language together with other is utilized in-classroom use. The fact is that bilingual education in the 1800s was related to the immigration patterns whereby non -citizens would gain knowledge of English in the United States. In 1839, bilingual education was considered localized until the State of Ohio endorsed the aspect of bilingual instruction for teaching German immigrant schoolchildren both English and German languages (Zhuman & Karimtaeva, 2020). The acceptance of bilingual education grew in 1900, as twelve more states integrated legislated bilingual public school education. During the 1990s, the bilingual education was informal and highly localized programs, that mostly used by immigrants. In 1968, the bilingual education was entirely accepted and later on, U.S. Congress enacted the first Bilingual Education Act. Later in 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favour of the Lau v. Nichols to promote non-English-speaking students, thus mitigating linguistic barriers in the classroom ( Nichols, 2019 ).

Social context

The bilingualism issue in America has been affected by the exclusiveness of ethnic groups and social minorities. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, it is a fact to state that about 20 % of Americans have the capacity to c converse in two or more languages, comparison to over 50 % of Europeans ( Reading, 2018). The level of bilingualism in a higher learning institution in America is lower than in Europe due to social bias and inadequate language diversity. The problem of universities and colleges restricting bilingual education prevents language integration. Social and cultural dominance in public institutions is a factor that influences students’ linguistic progress due to bilingualism.

Theoretical context

Social constructivism is one of the sociological theories of knowledge in which human development get socially situated, and knowledge is constructed through interaction with others. The three languages commonly English, Spanish, and Chinese in which most population speaks in the United States. Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition as a theoretical aspect converse the importance of second language acquisition ( Raju, & Joshith, 2018). The lack of bilingual teachers is another issue as inadequately trained professionals in learning institutions impact second language acquisition. Among Immigrants population and ethnic communities mostly teach their children their native language before their national or common international language (English) due to teachers’ shortages.

Situation to Self

In this section, I view bilingualism in education as a form of increasing language autonomously. Higher learning institutions provide second language acquisition programs so that they can gain an understanding of English. I agree with the fact that the primary purpose of the bilingual program in the United States is to teach English to students so that they can be given time to integrate into the mainstream of education. Funding or paying bilingual teachers is a factor in second language acquisition for English teachers or foreigners.

Ontological

The ontological assumption is that bilingual education is a bridge of social diversity through the learning of the second language. The ontology aspect will help me better recognize how certain concerning bilingual education, its benefits in society and learners, and the nature of bilingualism. This study will give me a better comprehension of how international students can improve their performance and integrate into society with high English proficiency.

Epistemological

The epistemological assumption of the participating bilingual students was linked to their perceptions of themselves and their relationship to the way they view the United States. Epistemology in a study elaborates what is known to be right about bilingualism and how the community and learners understand it. I believe that bilingual education is helpful to international students who do not use English as their typical language. I know of students with limited English skills and understanding join the bilingual program to learn English in the United States. The language barrier is a factor that influences bilingualism in the school curriculum. Other than social diversity and language acquisition benefits, students can improve on the performance. The valuable and essential aspect of the research influences bilingual education on international students’ performance and their experiences in such programs in universities and colleges.

Axiological

The axiological assumption is the importance of a bilingual education program to immigrants and how it benefits international students in gaining mastery of the second language. My values and role of the research study are focussed on the social ramification of bilingualism in a typical U.S. educational system and how perceived attitudes affect the learning process of an international student or exchange students from other countries. The axiological aspect elaborates on the effect of my values on conducting this research in bilingual education. The U.S. state governments need to promote bilingual programs in all tertiary classroom to foster cultural and social diversity in the educational system.

Problem Statement

The problem of this phenomenological study is the lack of trained bilingual teachers in higher learning institutions in which influences the international student’s perceptions and attitudes. Bilingualism affects cultural diversity in an educational system in the United States that affects international students’ performance in schools ( Kennedy, 2018). This problem can be addressed by integrating bilingualism in all public and private universities, which will lead to increased demand for efficient training of teachers. The bilingual teacher shortage demands the need for more teachers of English as a Second Language (ESL) as every year; higher non-English speaking students are joining the U.S. educational system. Federal and State funding of bilingual education in all U.S. universities and Colleges will solve this problem. The bilingual program in higher education would increase students’ achievement in English and other courses due to language acquisition ( Henderson, 2017, p.21 ). The extensive empirical evidence concerning bilingual education on minority populations and international students shows a need to solve the issues surrounding the acceptance of bilinguals and teachers’ shortages in the schools.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of the phenomenological study is to describe the bilingualism experiences in higher education among international students and how it influences performance, social aspects of inclusion, and diversity. Bilingualism in higher education promotes social interaction and general inclusiveness in institutions. The success of bilingualism in a diverse population is mostly influenced by open-minded institutional and international students’ inclusive classrooms (Fassero, 2017). The impact of bilingual education on the student is gaining dual-language and promoting native heritage language ( Watzinger-Tharp, Swenson, and Mayne, 2018). Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition theory will direct the study ( Koceva, 2018). The fact is that this phenomenological study enables one to understand how international students can improve their performance through a bilingual education program in a higher learning institution. The bilingual education in public and private schools has given ethnic minority groups like immigrants and exchange students the chance to learn English and integrate into society more quickly.

Significance of the Study

Empirical significance

The study’s empirical significance is to validate the hypothesis concerning bilingual education and help readers understand the relationship of the program with international students ( Singer & Alexander, 2017). Through observations and case studies, the research can provide evidence and understand facts about the study altogether. Empirical research mostly based on observation and what is measured concerning bilingual education towards international students and how the knowledge from their experience affect their educational and social lives. It also describes the process that needs to be utilized in this study concerning the bilingual student population and other methods of selection, controls, and testing.

Theoretical significance

The theoretical perspective of the study explains how language fluency can be learned through natural communication. Krashen’s theory contends that the five-stage of the theory enables an individual to fully acquire the second language through early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency. The fact is that the theory converse that the second language acquisition language allows the learners to acquire their first language’s grammatical characteristics ( Johannsen, 2017).

Practical significance

Practical significance involves the statistical data of how many international students in the U.S. have gained a specific language through a bilingual educational program. A factual explanation of the study requires statistics that are reliable and accurate. The practical significance shows the magnitude of the effect in which explains the impact of bilingual education to international students. The lack of statistical testing to prove whether the effect is large enough is considered important to the study ( Mohajer., Mesgari,& Lee, 2020).

Research Questions

How do students’ attitudes in bilingual education improve positive student performance?

Positive attitudes of international students in exchange-students in the learning of the second language increase the level of acquisition, leading to better school achievement. The bilingual educational program helps international students gain fluency in English that assist in performing tasks and classroom assignments. The importance of bilingual education in higher learning is that students can complete degrees and course programs. Better academic achievement through second language acquisition gives students a chance to comprehend other languages and better speaking skills (Goh, 2017).

What are students’ perceptions of socio-cultural factors on bilingual education within the United States education system?

According to Bialystok (2018) contend, socioeconomic status is often confounded with bilingual education outcomes. International students tend to reflect on the cultural and linguistic diversity concerning bilingual education in higher learning institutions. In this context, social elements usually affect the success of bilingualism in higher learning. The political interference and economic factors of money hinder the program’s accessibility to international students in the U.S. Institutional culture and leadership tend to affect the bilingual program in universities and colleges due to the number of applicants. Cultural values and beliefs variations elements that influence students’ experience and integration of bilingual programs in higher education.

What are students’ perceptions of inadequate bilingual teachers within the United States education system?

The number of bilingual teachers impacts the student’s acquisition level in grammar, utterances, and fluency. Institutions that have no or less trained bilingual programs affect the concept of linguistic or language diversity. International students have the opportunity to learn another language, thus having a linguistic advantage over others. From an educational perspective, students usually become more creative and intellect, leading to academic achievement. International students can integrate and socialize socialize in English with others due to their language fluency. International students usually have the aim of understanding a new language, gaining vast literacy in knowledge, and also enables one to preserve their cultural identity ( Wright & Baker, 2017 ).

What are teachers’ perceptions of bilingualism?

The perception of teachers is that bilingual knowledge and training is continuous as there is a need to improve their skills. The teacher feels that fully regardless of the level or status of credentialed bilingual teachers, there is the reason for acquiring new knowledge. The changing curriculum needs teachers to attain the best practices of instruction and educational assessment to be qualified to be part of the bilingual education program. Teachers view bilingual education as a platform to integrate new languages in the classroom as well as to attain new experiences with foreign students outside and within the United States ( Zelin, 2017 ).

How do teachers’ practices address the needs of bilinguals?

Teachers practices allow students to gain more expertise and mastery of the second language. In the U.S., the needs of bilingual students are to understand and learn English as a second language so that they can be easily integrated into society and the educational system ( Antoniou, 2019 ). The knowledge of bilingual teachers is to instruct new learners of the second language and promote the aspect of comprehension.

Do bilingual teachers’ perceptions of themselves change from the beginning to the end of the course and do university students’ perceptions of bilingual teachers change from the beginning to the end of the course?

The bilingual teacher’s perceptions usually change at the end of the course as they become more appreciative and enlightened on the element of bilingualism. The teachers can view bilingual students as other fluent English individuals, thus reducing favouritism, bias and discrimination ( Farida, 2019). Positive teachers perceptions of the bilingual program help students better understand and learn new aspects of the second language in which will promote educational performance and excellence.

Definitions

Bilingual- is defined as how an individual learns how to speak more than two languages ( De Houwer, 2017).
Acquisition- the process of attaining or gaining concepts of a language ( Meisel, 2017).
The second language- is considered the other languages, excluding the native or mother language of an individual ( Guasti, 2017).
Perception- It is known as the experiences and the attitudes of individuals concerning a particular matter ( Villalobos, 2017).
Native language- it is the first taught or learnt the language of a person. In most cases, it is the original or mother speaking the language of students ( Malmasi, & Dras, 2017).

Summary

Bilingual education has the mandate of equipping students with the ability to gain knowledge of a second language. The paper explains the purpose and problems of statements concerning the study. In many countries, there is the incorporation of bilingualism in the educational curriculum. Bilingual education enables international studies to acquire a second language to integrate into society and the educational program. The problem of a shortage of bilingual teachers in the educational system influences the second language of English acquisition in America. The high number of non-English students, for instance, international students from other countries, proves there is a high demand for a skilled English teacher to promote bilingualism in higher education. This section further explains social, theoretical and other elements that connect bilingual education. For international students, having bilingual support usually helps children to maintain robust ties with their cultures and families, thus understanding their identities. The purpose of bilingual education is to enable international students to learn English, which would lead to better educational achievement.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview

In chapter 2 of the study provides the context for further discussion of the study concerning the bilingualism among international students and how perceived attitudes and experiences influence their academic performance. Secondly, the section will elaborate the two theories relating to bilingual education which are social constructivism and Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition that would focus on the core hypothesis of second language Acquisition-Learning ( García & Lin, 2017). The concept of Second language acquisition in higher learning institution sequential language acquisition entails the learning a second language most preferred is English. This theory aims to establish aspects of fluency and mastery of the second language. In the United States, the bilingual education system has led to many immigrants, and foreign students develop proficiency in the English language. Higher learning institutions like colleges and universities, advocate diversity in culture and languages. The theoretical framework involves the vast collection of interrelated concepts and themes; for instance, various theories connected to the study (Aparicio, Bacao, & Oliveira, 2016). A theoretical framework in this study will help in guiding this research, therefore, determining what various ways to measure, and the statistical relationships to the study. Thirdly, the literature reviews of the study that enables to clarify facts, objectives through the previous researcher. The articles and books have to relate to the study and enable the study to fill the gaps. Finally, the summary of the section involving the key concepts concerning bilingual education and the experience of international students in the United States. The understanding of how students perceive the bilingual education and its impacts on their social and cultural concepts. Bilingual educational programs in the United integration into an educational system build integrated into the curriculum to foster interaction, vocabulary mastering and second language acquisition ( May, 2017).

Theoretical Framework

This section provides the reader with a direct connection and understanding of the concept of the study. The importance of various related theories to further explain how variables impact the study.

Social constructivism

Social constructivism has the mandate to teaches that all forms of knowledge usually get developed because of social interaction and language use (Stibi & Hird, 2018). It is imperative to state that teachers have the mandate to direct students in being independent, make their choices, theories as well as a test for viability. This particular theoretical framework aims in educating the bilingual learners connecting them to the communicative as well as the constructivist approaches to learning. It involves the vast transfer of knowledge from one language to the other, whereby the learner gains knowledge and understanding. In matters of the communicative approach in language learning are motivated by various principles as one of them is the second language (L2) learning, after the mastery of native or first language (L1). The importance of L2 learning enables learners to interact and communicate with diverse groups (Karpouza & Emvalotis, 2019).

An example is the communication barrier among races and ethnical group mainly because of the L1 understanding compared to L2 Learning. The concept of the second language(L2) promotes the aspect of bilingual learning in institutions and other educational places. The second principles involve the learning process in which L2 learning can be developed. The use of student-centred setting motivates international students to focus on gaining vocabulary and fluency in the second language. Bilingual education offers individuals the opportunity to further appreciate the second language through communicative interaction ( Nor & Ab Rashid, 2018).

Moreover, the content of a new language learning needs to have immediate meaning in which the student can easily understand. The learner’s perceived attitudes get influenced by their experiences during bilingual education programs with interaction with teachers. The language learning tends to occur in social interactions which suggest that this theory explains how bilingual students can communicate with other as well as get educated in a group of students hence promoting socializations (González-Carriedo et al.,2016). International students gain reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills as they get developed simultaneously in a bilingual education program. The learning process of the second language elevates communication attributes among bilingual students like sentence construction and vocabulary mastery.

Constructivism focuses on the importance of individual knowledge, beliefs, and skills through the experience of learning (Pardjono, 2016). It states that the construction of understanding is a combination of prior knowledge and new information. Individuals can accept new ideas or fit them into their established views of the world. Constructivist learning is a theory about how people learn. It states that learning happens when learners construct meaning by interpreting information in the context of their own experiences. The primary idea of constructivism focuses on how human learning gets constructed, in that learners in these international students can build new knowledge upon the foundation of their past learning ( Suhendi, 2018). The bilingual educational structure in the United States enables diverse conservation and development of languages in the institution. The high number of exchange students gives higher learning institutions a platform to initiate bilingual programs to help in the learning of English as the second language to foreigners and individuals with less fluency.

Social constructivism concerning bilingual education suggests the importance of successful teaching and learning among international students in which help integrate society and educational system much faster ( Teschke & Heine, 2016). The educational instructors provide materials and knowledge of the second language with the intent to initiate communication and interaction. The excessive dependence on interpersonal interaction and discussion among international students proves that bilingual education program adds value. The primary focus on international students’ understanding involves common language understanding in the discussions and conversations ( Parra & Muszynska, 2017). The bilingual education programs offer opportunities for international students to fully develop communication skills and knowledge of the second language in the United States.

Social constructivism further enables the researcher to build knowledge about bilingual education in higher education and way to better understand the United State educational system ( Aljohani, 2017). The perceived understanding of the world concerning bilingual education is that foreigners tend to get understand the second language in that particular country. The fact is that second language necessarily does not need to be English, but the acquired L2 of the individuals. In the United States education system, every student has to fully comprehend and use English for assignments, examinations and group engagements. The necessity of bilingualism in higher learning education enables a better understanding as to why individuals need to acquire (Kukulska-Hulme & Pegrum, 2018). Bilingualism enables a diversity of language views and moral knowledge which allows the assessment of school management’s behaviour concerning the fairness of enrolled students for bilingual programs, the wrongful and unethical discrimination of individual without English proficiency ( Suhendi, 2018).

Related Literature

Summary

References

Antoniou, M. (2019). The advantages of bilingualism debate. Annual Review of Linguistics, 5, 395-415.

Aparicio, M., Bacao, F., & Oliveira, T. (2016). An e-learning theoretical framework. An e-learning theoretical framework, (1), 292-307.

Aljohani, M. (2017). Principles of “constructivism” in foreign language teaching. Journal of Literature and Art Studies, 7(1), 97-107.

Bialystok, E. (2018). Bilingual education for young children: a review of the effects and consequences. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21(6), 666-679.

Devlin, B., Disbray, S., & Devlin, N. (2017). A thematic history of bilingual education in the Northern Territory. In History of bilingual education in the Northern Territory (pp. 1-10). Springer, Singapore.

De Houwer, A. (2017). Bilingual language acquisition. The handbook of child language, 219-250.

Gándara, P., & Escamilla, K. (2017). Bilingual education in the United States. Bilingual and multilingual education, 1-14.

García, O., & Lin, A. (2017). Extending understandings of bilingual and multilingual education. Bilingual and multilingual education, 1-20.

García, O., & Woodley, H. H. (2015). Bilingual education. The Routledge handbook of educational linguistics, 132-144.

González-Carriedo, R., Bustos, N., & Ordóñez, J. (2016). Constructivist approaches in a dual-language classroom. Multicultural Perspectives, 18(2), 108-111.

García, O., & Lin, A. (2017). Extending understandings of bilingual and multilingual education. Bilingual and multilingual education, 1-20.

Goh, C. C. M. (2017). Research into practice: Scaffolding learning processes to improve speaking performance.

Guasti, M. T. (2017). Language acquisition: The growth of grammar. MIT press.

Koceva, V. (2018). Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition. Knowledge-International Journal, Scientific Papers, 22(6), 1511-1518.

Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Pegrum, M. (2018). Linguistic diversity in online and mobile learning.

Kennedy, B. (2018). The bilingual teacher shortage in one Texas school district: Practitioner perspectives. Journal of Latinos and Education, 1-17.

Karpouza, E., & Emvalotis, A. (2019). Exploring the teacher-student relationship in graduate education: a constructivist grounded theory. Teaching in higher education, 24(2), 121-140.

Johannsen, K. (2017). On the Theoretical Significance of GA Cohen’s Fact-Insensitivity Thesis. Res Publica, 23(2), 245-253.

Henderson, K. I. (2017). Teacher language ideologies are mediating classroom-level language policy in the implementation of dual language bilingual education. Linguistics and Education, 42, 21-33.

Farida, L. A. (2019, June). Teachers ‘Scaffolding Talk in Bilingual Class. In ISET 2019: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Science, Education and Technology, ISET 2019, 29th June 2019, Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia (p. 281). European Alliance for Innovation.

Fassero, L. (2017). Promoting Student Success: Bilingual Education Best Practices and Research Flaws.

Fernando, S. Y., & Marikar, F. M. (2017). Constructivist Teaching/Learning Theory and Participatory Teaching Methods. Journal of Curriculum and Teaching, 6(1), 110-122.

Malmasi, S., & Dras, M. (2017). Multilingual native language identification. Natural Language Engineering, 23(2), 163-215.

Mohajeri, K., Mesgari, M., & Lee, A. S. (2020). When Statistical Significance Is Not Enough: Investigating Relevance, Practical Significance, and Statistical Significance. MIS Quarterly, 44(2).

Meisel, J. M. (2017). Parameters in the acquisition. The handbook of child language, 9-35.

May, S. (2017). Bilingual education: What the research tells us. Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education. 3rd ed. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 81-100.

Nichols, L. V. (2019). Lau v. Nichols. Latinos in the American Political System: An Encyclopedia of Latinos as Voters, Candidates, and Office Holders [2 volumes], 288.

Nor, N. M., & Ab Rashid, R. (2018). A review of theoretical perspectives on language learning and acquisition. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 39(1), 161-167.

Parra, M. E. G., & Muszynska, B. (2017). Comparing Results from International Bilingual Education Programmes. Educación Bilingüe: Tendencias Educativas y Conceptos Clave Bilingual Education: Educational Trends and Key Concepts, 171.

Pardjono, P. (2016). Active learning: The Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, and constructivist theory perspectives. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan, 9(3).

Raju, N., & Joshith, V. P. (2018). Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition: A Practical Approach for English Language Classrooms. International Journal of Innovative Knowledge Concepts, 6(12), 179-184.

Reading, S. (2018). Across the United States schools have become less and less homo-geneous in their ethnic and linguistic make-up. A recent estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau (2017) indicated that 21.6% of the popula-tion aged 5 and older spoke a language other than English at home. While Spanish, a home language of about 40.5 million people, repre-sents by far the largest non-English language, over 400 languages are used in homes and communities across the country (Capps et al., 2005). Language background alone, however …. Summer Reading: Closing the Rich/Poor Reading Achievement Gap, 114.

Singer, L. M., & Alexander, P. A. (2017). Reading on paper and digitally: What the past decades of empirical research reveal. Review of educational research, 87(6), 1007-1041.

Stibi, L., & Hird, J. (2018). The Impact of Intercultural Communicative Competences in a Bilingual School Environment.

Suhendi, A. (2018). Constructivist learning theory: The contribution to foreign language learning and teaching. KnE Social Sciences, 87-95.

Teschke, B., & Heine, C. (2016). A critique of Social Constructivism. Historical Materialism and GlobalizationGlobalization: Essays on Continuity and Change, 165.

Villalobos, E. F. (2017). Perceptions of a Constructivist Approach in a Bilingual School Community.

Watzinger-Tharp, J., Swenson, K., & Mayne, Z. (2018). Academic achievement of students in dual language immersion. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21(8), 913-928.

Wright, W. E., & Baker, C. (2017). Key concepts in bilingual education. Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education. 3rd ed. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 65-80.

Zhuman, A., & Karimtaeva, D. (2020). THE HISTORY OF DEVELOPING BILINGUAL EDUCATION. In WORLD SCIENCE: PROBLEMS AND INNOVATIONS (pp. 150-152).

Zelin, L. (2017). The choice of a progressive bilingual education model. Chinese Education & Society, 50(1), 25-32.