Behavioral theories
Addiction can be described as psychological or physical dependency on the drug. Therefore, those who are tobacco-dependent may be classified either by “statistical manual” or diagnostic of mental disorders. These disorders can be classified mainly based on some signs like the impaired control over substance use, withdrawal, continued use despite health-risk knowledge, and craving. Some of the smoking contributing factors are a mix of psychological, cultural, social, or genetic factors. However, theories of smoking and cessation vary based on the conceptualization of relative importance and inter-relationship between the determinant factors of smoking. Therefore, interventions that aim in promoting some health behaviors and that are based on theoretical constructs are thus more effective when compared to those that are not grounded on theories.
Behavioral theories
These theories mainly base their focuses on how individuals learn to behave in specific ways. Behaviorism was coined from two schools of thoughts that are: classical conditioning and Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
According to this school of thought, an individual learns how to associate himself or herself with two unrelated stimuli. For example, in the “Pavlov’s experiment,” the dog associated the bell’s sound with food. In the case of smoking, an individual learns how to associate smoking with some events or feelings such as traumatic scenarios, or sometimes taking coffee (Gormezano, Np). These situations then automatically induce “cue” or craving in the individual’s smoking behavior. Therefore, according to classical conditioning theory, drug-related stimuli become mainly associated with the rewarding aspect of using it. Thus, a cigarette packet evokes a feeling of wanting to smoke.
Operant conditioning
Based on this school of thought, the behavior is mainly shaped by its consequences, for example, rewards or punishment (McLeod, Np). Therefore, when smokers inhale nicotine, it results in a rapid release of the dopamine that, in return, causes a feeling of pleasure that, in the end, reinforce as well as reward behavior. In a nutshell, the pressure and the reinforcement thus drive the addiction process.
Social observant learning
The operant and classical conditioning describe how smokers learn through direct involvement. Though people learn mainly by watching others and we term it as social learning (Brauer, 164) Therefore, an individual learns how to smokes from peer groups, his or her family as well as from the large community. People always have an influential urge for social interaction, and thus it turns out significant to consider many addictions to the social environment. Therefore, some addiction that results from social-observant learning results from social pleasure and interactions. In a nutshell, asking habit is thus a learned behavior whereby the primary desire or gratification is thus rewarding. Therefore, based on the operant conditioning principles, rewarded behavior increases, and thus, and the addicts depend on smoking as the sole source of reward.
Question two-part b
One of the best ways of promoting healthy birth is through a healthy pregnancy. Thus, early as well as consistent prenatal care advances the likelihood of a healthy pregnancy.
Therefore, regular prenatal care should thus start with the pre-pregnancy care visit to the provider of health-care. During the prenatal development period, some changes occur to the unborn infant. These changes are classified into the germinal period (between 1 to 2 weeks), embryonic period (that’s is 3 to 8 weeks), and finally, fetal period (that is 9 to 40 weeks). However, teratogen can be described as something that may create a congenital disability. Teratogen may thus include some environmental toxins, incompatible blood type, drugs, stress, and inadequate nutrient maternal age, advanced paternal, and even alcohol.
Germinal period
This period lasts from conception up to implantation of the zygote in the uterus lining. However, exposure to some of the potentially hazardous agents during this period is unavoidable as pregnancy frequently unplanned or sometimes unnoticed after conception (Chaabane et al., 132). Abnormalities during this stage of prenatal development may be as a result of exposure to teratogens. During this stage, every organ structure is vulnerable to any injury or damage when evolving. Therefore, the initial 8 weeks of pregnancy are at higher exposure to the teratogens at the critical period. Thus, if any teratogens interfere during this period, a particular body structure will not correctly form.
Embryonic period
This period is particularly marked by cellular configuration, as well as the development that is not fully understood. However, after the completion of this period, the crucial anomalies that may affect the fetus already are in place, and thus, the sooner they occur, the more the damage (Gatzounis, 119). A substantial number of pregnant women during this period are mainly compromised are they may be at risk symptomatic of some things such as consumption of drugs, smoking, or even alcohol, genitourinary infections, anemia as well as inadequate dental health.
Fetal stage
During this stage, the sex organs start differentiating. Consequently, during this stage, the brain keeps on growing and developing (Al-Gubory, 21). The cycle of wakefulness, as well as sleep, is represented during this period. The growth of fetal is thus affected by the quality and the amount of maternal nutrition and the mother’s ability to aptly absorb as well as disperse cardiorespiratory function. Malnourished woman during this stage has a big chance of giving birth to a low weight infant who may develop intellectual problems during her childhood and may happen to be a significant risk factor for mental illness. During this stage, folic acid is crucial for healthy prenatal development. Alcohol during this period may signify a typical form of behavioral teratogenesis that may not only cause the malformation of the body, but also it may interfere with the brain. Additionally, there is a relationship between low birth weight in a baby and smoking.