CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents data analysis and interpretation. The data was analyzed and interpreted systematically in line with the objectives of the study. Data analysis was done through content analysis. The analysis focused on the use of deixis in selected inaugural speeches of presidents in East Africa. Firstly, the analysis involves the identification of deictic expressions in the selected inaugural speeches. This will involve coding and categorizing the research data into different types of deixis: person, time, place, and social. Secondly, the analysis will seek to establish the deictic expressions’ role in the selected inaugural speeches. Thirdly the analysis will seek to investigate the effect of deixis use in inaugural speeches as communication content. Content analysis will be facilitated by AntiCon 3.5.8 software corpus analysis tool kit for concordance and text analysis. The software will be used to build wordlists and concordance lines. For this purpose, the selected speeches will be transformed into text files since it’s the only format recognized by AntiCon. The software’s wordlist and concordance options are used to select items understudy and look for their contextual anchorage. The concordance option facilitates the demonstration of a list of all occurrences of a particular search term in a corpus presented within the context in which they occur.
4.2 Types of Deixis in Selected Inaugural Speeches
The first objective was to identify and describe types of deixis in the inaugural speeches of presidents in East Africa. The researcher read through the four selected inaugural speeches to identify deictic expressions used. The identification of deictic terms was facilitated through the use of AntiCon software. The researcher created a word list for each category of deixis. Person deixis wordlist contained personal pronouns such as first-person pronouns; ‘I’ ‘my’ ‘myself’ ‘we’ ‘us’ ‘our’ ‘ours’ ‘ourselves,’ second-person pronouns; ‘you’ ‘your’ ‘yours’ ‘yourself,’ third-person pronouns; ‘he’ ‘she’ ‘it’ ‘they’ ‘them’ and ‘themselves.’ Place deixis wordlist contained adverbs of place; ‘here,’ ‘there’ and demonstratives ‘this’ and ‘that.’ Temporal deixis word list included adverbs of time such as ‘today’ ‘next’ ‘now’ ‘yesterday’ and ‘tomorrow.’ Social deixis wordlist contained titles of address; your Excellency, honorable members, ladies, gentlemen, kinship terms; ‘brothers’ ‘sisters’ and endearing terms; ‘dear,’ ‘fellow’. Each selected inaugural speech ran through AntiCon software to identify the specific deictic terms in the created wordlist.
4.2.1 Types of Deixis in Paul Kagame’s Inaugural Address
The first speech analyzed is Paul Kagame’s Inaugural speech delivered on 18th august 2017 during the swearing-in ceremony. The findings from the content analysis of the inaugural speech by Paul Kagame indicated that the president used deictic expressions. Four types of deictic expressions were identified; person, place, time, and social deixis.
4.2.1.1 Person Deixis in Paul Kagame’s Speech
The findings on the content analysis of Paul Kagame’s inaugural Speech indicated that the President used person deictic expressions in his Inaugural Speech. The search wordlist for person deixis included first-person pronouns, ‘I’, ‘we’ ‘my’ ‘me’ ‘us’ ‘our’ ‘ours’ and ‘ourselves.’ It also included second person pronoun such as ‘you’ ‘your’ ‘yours’ ‘yourself’ and ‘yourselves.’ Third-person deictics included, ‘he,’ ‘they,’ and ‘their.’ This is illustrated in figure four below.
Figure 4 Person Deixis in Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
A total of 13 person deictic terms were identified through AntiCon 3.5.8 software in Kagame’s inaugural speech. The person deictic words were categorized into first, second, and third person. The person deictic words occurred at different frequencies. The findings are summarized in table 1 below.
Table 1: Person Deixis in Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
| First Person | Freq | Second Person
|
Freq | Third Person
|
Freq |
| I
Me we Our Us Ourselves |
5
2 32 29 21 1 |
You
Your Yourself Yourselves
|
9
2 1 1
|
Their
They He
|
4
2 1 |
| Total | 90 | 13 | 7 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the analysis in the table above, it is observed that President Paul Kagame used person deixis in his inaugural speech. Out of a total of 1267 words in the speech, 110 words were person deictic words. The person deictics occurred at different frequencies; ‘we’ occurred at the highest frequency of 32, ‘our’ 29, ‘us’21, ‘you’9, ‘I’5 , ‘their’ 4,’they’ 2, ‘me’ 2, ‘your’2 ‘yourself’ 1, ‘yourselves’ 1, ‘ourselves’1, and ‘he’1. Paul Kagame used a total number of 110 person deictic terms in his inaugural speech was 110 words.
The analysis found that first-person deictic expressions were used more in the speech than second and third person. First-person deictic term; ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘we’ ‘our’, ‘us’, and ‘ourselves’ occurred at a frequency of 90. It is further observed that president Kagame used collective person deixis more than individualistic person deixis. Collective person deixis terms, ‘our,’ ‘we,’ ‘us’, and ‘ourselves’ occurred at a frequency of 83 out of a total of 90 person deixis words. Individualistic person deictic terms, ‘I, and ‘me,’ occurred at a frequency of 7 out of a total frequency of 90. Second person deictic terms occurred at a frequency of 13 while third-person deictics were the least used and occurred at a frequency of 7. The choice of person deictic terms depended on the roles the terms were used for and the effects Paul Kagame intended to convey.
4.2.1.2 Place Deixis in Paul Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
The content analysis of Paul Kagame’s inaugural speech indicated that the president used place deictic expressions. The search wordlist for place deixis contained adverbs of place ‘here,’ there’ and demonstratives ‘this,’ ‘that’ ‘these ‘and ‘those.’ President Kagame used six place deictic expression. The place deictic expressions occurred at different frequencies. ‘That’ occurred at the frequency of 20, ‘there’ at 7 ‘this’ at 7, ‘those ‘at 3, at ‘ these’ at 2, and ‘here’ at 2. This is illustrated in figure five below.
Figure 5 Place Deixis in Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
Six place deictic terms were identified in the speech through AntiCon 3.5.8 software, as indicated in the figure above. The place deictic terms were categorized into two groups; those referred to people or things that were near (proximal) the speaker and those that referred to people or things that were away from the speaker (distal). The place deictic terms occurred at different frequencies. The findings of place deictic expressions in Kagame’s speech is summarized in table 2 below.
Table 2: Place Deixis in Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
| Proximal deixis | Freq | Distal deixis | Freq |
| This
These Here |
7
2 2 |
That
Those There |
20
3 7 |
| Totals | 11 | 30 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the above analysis, it is found that president Kagame used distal place deixis more than proximal place deictics. A total frequency of 41 place deixis were identified, out of which 30 were distal place deictic terms while 11 were proximal deictic terms. The choice of place deictic terms depended on their role and the effects the president wanted to convey. This will be analyzed in the next section.
4.2.1.3 Time Deixis in Paul Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
The content analysis of Paul Kagame’s inaugural speech indicated that the president used time deictic expressions. Time referents were expressed in different features within the inaugural address. The search wordlist for time deixis contained temporal adverbs such as before, after and temporal adjectives such as, ‘today’, ‘tomorrow’, ‘next’, ‘now’, ‘past’, present, ‘future’ ‘then”, ‘ago’,’been’,’last’,’during’,’after’, ‘will and shall’. A total of twelve deictic words were identified through AntiCon 3.5.8 software. This is illustrated in figure 6 below.
Figure 6: Time Deixis in Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
The time deictics identified occurred at different frequencies. ‘Will’ and ‘today’ occurred at the highest frequency of 5, ‘future’ 3, ‘during’ 2, ‘next’ 2, ‘after’2 ‘next’ 1, ‘now’ 1.The total frequency of time deixis was at 19 words. The temporal deictic terms were categorized into three major divisions; before the moment of the inaugural speech delivery (past), the moment time of the inaugural speech delivery (present time), and the time after the inaugural speech delivery (future time). This is illustrated in table 3 below.
Table 3: Time Deixis in Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
| A time before the speech | Freq | Moment of the speech | Freq | Time after the speech | Freq | |
| After
During
|
2
2 |
Today
Now
|
5
1
|
Will
Future Next |
5
3 1 |
|
| Total | 4 | 6 | 9 | |||
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the analysis above, time referents that conveyed time after speech delivery occurred at the highest frequency of 9. Time referents conveying the time during the actual inaugural speech delivery occurred at a frequency of 6 while time referents were used to convey time before the inaugural speech delivery occurred at a frequency of 4.
4.2.1.4 Social Deixis in Paul Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
The content analysis of Paul Kagame’s Inaugural speech indicated that the president used social deictic expressions. The social deictic terms identified were; kinship terms, titles of address, and endearing terms. The search wordlist for social deixis contained words such as ‘honorable’, ‘ladies’, ‘gentlemen’, ‘brothers’, ‘sisters’, ‘dear’, ‘fellow’, ‘excellency’, ‘excellencies’, ‘fellow’, ‘citizens’ ‘guest’, ‘guests’ and ‘heads’. The words were searched through AntiCon 3.5.8. This is illustrated in figure 7 below.
Figure 7 Social Deixis in Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the analysis above, it was found that president Kagame used social deictic expressions in his inaugural speech. A total number of six social deictic terms were identified in the inaugural speech. ‘Heads’ (for heads of state) was used twice, ‘sisters’ 2, ‘brothers’ 2, ‘fellow’ 1, ‘citizen’ 1 and ‘president’1.The social deictic terms were categorized into two major axes. The first axis contained terms that indicated a relationship between the speaker and the addressee through titles of address. The second axis indicated the degree of formality of the speech situation through kinship and endearing terms. This is illustrated in table 4 below.
Table 4: Social Deixis in Kagame’s Inaugural Speech
| Absolute Social Deixis | Freq | Relational Social Deixis | Freq |
| Heads
Citizen President Total |
2
1 1 4 |
Brothers
Sisters fellow |
2
2 1 6 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
The analysis indicates that President Kagame used more relational social deictic expressions compared to absolute social deixis. Out of 10 social deictic expressions used in the speech, 6 conveyed a relational relationship between the president and his addressee, while 6 conveyed an absolute relationship between the president and his addressee.
4.2.2 Types of Deixis in Salva Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
The second speech analyzed is Salva Kiir’s Inaugural Speech delivered on 21st May 2010. The analysis of Salva Kiir’s inaugural speech indicated that the president used deixis. The finding indicated that the president used deictic expressions. The deictic expressions were used to perform specific roles and achieve desired effects for the enhancement of effective communication of the intended message. Four types of deictic expressions were identified; person, place, time, and social deixis.
4.2.2.1 Person Deixis in Salva Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
The findings indicated that Salva Kiir used person Deixis in his Inaugural Speech. The search wordlist for person deixis included first-person pronouns, ‘I’ ‘we’ ‘my’ ‘mine’ ‘us’ ‘our’ ‘ours’ ‘ourselves’ and ‘myself.’ It also included second-person pronoun such as ‘you’ ‘your’ and ‘yours’ as well as third-person pronouns; ‘them,’ ‘he,’ ‘she,’ ‘it,’ and ‘themselves.’ This is illustrated in figure 8 below.
Figure 8 Person Deixis in Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
A total of 20 person deictic terms were identified through AntiCon 3.5.8 software. The person deictic words were categorized into first, second, and third person deixis. The person deictic words occurred at different frequencies. The findings are illustrated in the table below:
Table 5: Person Deixis in Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
| First Person | Freq | Second Person | Freq | Third Person | Freq |
| I
My Me Myself Our We Us Ours Ourselves |
88
27 8 5 97 38 16 1 3 |
You
Your
|
14
3
|
Their
They Them He Her His Themselves Theirs She |
36
20 14 3 3 4 5 1 1 |
| Total | 283 | 17 | 87 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on this analysis it is found that President Salva Kiir used different person deictic expressions in his inaugural speech. The deictic words occurred at different frequencies; ‘our’ 97, ‘I ’ 88, ‘we’ 38, ‘their’36, ‘my’ 27, ‘they’ 20, ‘us’, 16, ‘them’ 14, ‘you’14, ‘me’ 8, 45, ‘your’ 36,’me’ 22,’its’ 21, ‘them’ 20, ‘ourselves’ 9, ‘he’ 9’’her’, 7, ‘his’ 7, ‘themselves’ ‘themselves’ 5, ‘myself’5, ‘his’3, ‘your’ 3, ‘he’ 3, ‘her’ 3, ‘ourselves’ 3, ‘ours’ 1, ‘she’ I and ‘theirs’ 1. Person deixis occurred at a frequency of 387 out of 5928 words in the speech.
The analysis found that first-person deictic expressions were used more in the speech than second and third person. First-person deictic term; ‘I,’ ‘my,’ ‘myself,’ ‘me,’ ‘our,’ ‘we,’ ‘us,’ ‘ours and ‘ourselves’ occurred at a frequency of 283 out of a total of 387 person deictic words in the inaugural speech. It was further observed that President Salva Kiir used collective person deixis more than individualistic person deixis. Collective person deixis terms; ‘our,’ ‘we,’ ‘us’ ‘ours’ and ‘ourselves’ occurred at a frequency of 155 out of a total of 283 while individualistic person deictic terms; ‘I, ‘my’ ‘me’ and ‘myself’ occurred at 155 out of 283. The third person deictic terms occurred at a frequency of 87while second person deictics were the least used and occurred at a frequency of 17. The choice of person deictic terms depended on the roles the terms were used for and the effects President Salva Kiir intended to convey. This was analyzed in the second section of the analysis.
4.2.2.2 Place Deixis in Salva Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
Salva Kiir’s inaugural speech analysis indicated that the president used place deictic expressions in his inaugural speech. The search wordlist for place deixis contained adverbs of place ‘here,’ there’ and demonstratives ‘this,’ ‘that’ ‘these,’ ‘those.’ The speech was run through AntiCon 3.5.8. The findings are illustrated in figure 9 below.
Figure 9: Place Deixis in Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
Six place deictic terms were identified in the speech through AntiCon 3.5.8 software, as indicated in the figure above. The place deictic terms were categorized into two groups; those that referred to people or things near (proximal) and those that referred to people or things that were away from the speaker (distal). The place deictic terms occurred at different frequencies. This is illustrated in Table 6 below.
Table 6: Place Deixis in Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
| Proximal Deixis | Freq | Distal Deixis | Freq |
| This
These Here |
34
2 1 |
That
There Those |
114
9 40 |
| Total | 37 | 163 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the above analysis, it is found that out of a total of 5928 words in President Kiir’s inaugural speech, 200 were spatia; deictic expressions. Distal place deixis occurred more frequently than proximal place deictics. Out of a total of 200, distal place deixis occurred at 163, while proximal place deixis occurred at 37. This means that the president referred more to things and persons away from the deictic center than those near and closer to the deictic center. The choice of place deictic terms depended on their role and the effects the president wanted to convey. This will be analyzed in the next section.
4.2.2.3 Time Deixis in Salva Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
The analysis of Salva Kiir’s inaugural speech indicated that the president deployed time deictic expressions in different contexts within his inaugural speech. Time referents were expressed through different features within the inaugural address. The search wordlist for time deixis contained temporal adverbs such as ‘will’, ‘shall’, ‘today’, ‘tomorrow’, ‘now’, ‘then’, ‘before’, ‘ago’, ‘next’, ‘past’, ‘present’, ‘future’, ‘last’, ‘during’, ‘been’. A total of 13 deictic words were identified through AntiCon 3.5.8 software. This is illustrated in figure 10 below.
Figure 10. Time Deixis in Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
The time deictics identified occurred at different frequencies. ‘Shall’, 63,’been 13, ‘now 7, ‘will’ 7 , ‘last’6, ‘during ‘6, ‘future’6 , ‘ today’ 5, ‘before ‘4, ‘past’ 3, ‘next’2, ‘present’ 1 and ‘ago’1.The total frequency of time deixis was at 124 words. The temporal deictic terms were categorized into three major divisions; before the moment of the inaugural speech delivery (past), the moment time of the inaugural speech delivery (present time), and the time after the inaugural speech delivery (future time). This is illustrated in table 7 below:
Table 7: Time Deixis in Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
| Before The Speech Delivery | Freq | At the moment of speech delivery | Freq | After Speech Delivery | Freq |
| Been
Last During Before Past Ago |
13
6 6 4 3 1 |
Now
Today Present |
7
5 1 |
Shall
Will Future Next
|
63
7 6 2 |
| Total | 33 | 13 | 78 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
The analysis established President Salva Kiir employed several time deixis throughout his inaugural address. It was observed that time referents conveying a time after the delivery of the speech or rather the future were used more. Future referents occurred at 78 out of 124, whereas time referents indicating a time before the speech wathe recorded at 33 out of 124. Time conveying the moment during the actual speech delivery was recorded at 13 out of 124.
4.2.2.4 Social Deixis in Salva Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
The content analysis of Salva Kiir’s Inaugural speech indicated that the president used social deictic expressions. The social deictic terms identified were; kinship terms, titles of address, and endearing terms. Ten social deictic terms were identified in Salva Kiir’s inaugural address using AntiCon 3.5.8, as illustrated in figure 11 below.
Figure 11 Social Deixis in Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the analysis above, it was found that President Salva Kiir employed different social deictic expressions in his inaugural speech. The social deictic terms occurred at different frequencies; ‘fellow’ citizens occurred at the highest frequency of 20, ‘brothers’ 3, ‘brothers’, your ‘excellency’ 3, ‘ladies’1, ‘gentlemen’ 1, ‘brother’ 1, ‘dear’ 1, ‘excellences’ 1, ‘sister’ 1, ‘honorable’ 1, and ‘hon'(short form for honorable) 3. The social deictic terms were categorized into two major axes. The first axis contained terms that indicated a relationship between the speaker and the addressee through titles of address. The second axis indicated the degree of formality of the speech situation through kinship and endearing terms. This is illustrated in table 8 below:
Table 8: Social Deixis in Kiir’s Inaugural Speech
| Absolute Deixis | Freq | Relational Deixis | Freq |
| Excellency
Excellences Ladies Gentlemen Honorable Hon |
3
1 1 1 1 2 |
Brothers
Sisters Brother Fellow Dear
|
3
1 1 20 1 |
| Total | 9 | 26 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the analysis above, President Salva Kiir used more relational social deictic expressions than absolute social deixis. Relational social deixis comprised endearing and kinship terms, whereas absolute social deixis comprised forms and titles of address. Relational deixis occurred at 26 out of 35 while absolute occurred at 9 out of 35. The choice of the deictic terms depended on the roles they played as well as the effects the president wanted to achieve.
4.2.3 Types of Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
The findings from document analysis of deixis use in Museveni’s inaugural speech indicated that the president used deictic expressions. The deictic expressions used were categorized into four types; person, place, time and social deixis.
4.2.3.1 Person Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
The findings on the content analysis of Museveni’s inaugural Speech indicated that the President used person deictic expressions. The search wordlist for person deixis included first person pronouns; ‘I’ ‘we’ ‘my,’ ‘me’, ‘us’, ‘our’, ‘ours’ ‘ourselves’ and ‘myself’. It also included second person pronoun such as ‘you’ ‘your’ ‘yourself’ and ‘yours’. Third person pronouns included, ‘them’, ‘they’ ‘he’, ‘him’, ‘his’, ‘she, ’her’, hers’ and ‘themselves’. This is illustrated in figure 12 below.
Figure 12 Person Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
A total of 11 person deictic terms were identified through AntiCon 3.5.8 software. The person deictic words were categorized into first, second and third person deixis. The person deictic words occurred at different frequencies. The findings are illustrated in table 10 below.
Table 9: Person Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
| First person
|
Freq | Second person | Freq
|
Third person
|
Freq |
| I
We Our Us Ourselves |
12
27 16 11 1 |
You
Your
|
6
|
They
Their Them His |
5
2 1 1 |
| Totals | 67 | 12 | 9 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on this analysis it is found that President Museveni employed different person deictic expressions throughout his inaugural speech. The deictic words occurred at different frequencies; ‘we’27, ‘our’16, ‘I ’ 12, ‘us’ 11, ‘your’, 6, ‘you’ 6 , ‘your’ 6, ‘they’ 5, ‘their’ 2, ‘them’ 1, ‘ourselves’ 1 and ‘his’ 1. Out of a total 1573 words that were used in Museveni’s speech 88 were person deictic expressions. The analysis found that first person deictic expressions were used more in the speech than second and third person. First person deictic term; ‘I’, ‘our’, ‘we’, ‘us’, ‘and ‘ourselves’ occurred at a frequency of 67 out of a total of 88. It was further observed that President Museveni used collective person deixis more than individualistic person deixis. Collective person deixis was indicated through the use of plural pronouns ‘we’ ‘our’, ‘us’, and ‘ourselves’ while individualistic person deixis was conveyed through the use of first person singular pronoun ‘I’. Collective person deixis terms occurred at a frequency of 55 out of a total of 67. Individualistic person deictic term ‘I’ occurred at a frequency of 12. Second person deictic terms occurred at a frequency of 12 while third person deictics were the least used and occurred at a frequency of 9. The choice of person deictic terms depended on the roles the terms were used for as well as the effects President Museveni intended to convey. This was analyzed in the second section of analysis
4.2.3.2 Place Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
The findings of the content analysis of Museveni’s inaugural speech indicated that the president used place deictic expressions. The search wordlist for place deixis contained adverbs of place ‘here’, there’ and demonstratives ‘this’, ‘that’ ‘these’, ‘those’. A total of six place deictic expression were identified in Museveni’s inaugural speech through AntiCon 3.5.8. This is indicated in figure 13 below:
Figure 13 Place Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
The place deictic terms were categorized into two groups; those that referred to people or things that were near (proximal) and those that referred to people or things that were away from the speaker (distal). The place deictic terms occurred at different frequencies. This is illustrated in table 10 below:
Table 10: Place Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
| Proximal | Freq | Distal | Freq |
| This
These Here |
15
2 2 |
That
Those There |
9
2 1 |
| Total | 19 | 12 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the above analysis it is found that President Museveni employed place deictic terms throughout his inaugural speech. A total of 31 words out of a total of 1573 words in Museveni’s Inaugural speech were place deictic expressions. 12 were distal place deictic terms while 19 were proximal deictic terms. The choice of place deictic terms depended on their role and the effects the president wanted to convey. This was analyzed in the next section.
4.2.3.3 Time Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
The findings established that President Museveni used time deictic expressions in his Inaugural address. The search wordlist for time deixis contained temporal adverbs such as before, after and temporal adjectives such as, ‘today’, ‘tomorrow’, ‘next’, ‘now’, ‘past’, present, ‘future’ ‘then’’, ‘ago’, A total of twelve deictic words were identified through AntiCon 3.5.8 software. The time referents occurred at different frequencies. This is illustrated in the figure 14 below:
Figure 14 Time Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Researcher (2020)
The findings of the content analysis of Museveni’s inaugural speech indicated that the president used time deictic expressions. 7 time deictic words were identified from the inaugural speech. Time referents were expressed in different features within the inaugural address. The time referents occurred at different frequencies throughout the inaugural speech. ‘Will’16, ‘now’7, ‘past’ 3, ‘shall’ 2, ‘next’ 2, ‘present’1 and ‘last’ 1. The time referents in the inaugural speech were categorized into three groups; those that referred to a time before the inaugural speech was delivered, those that referred to the moment of the speech delivery and those that referred to the time after the inaugural speech delivery. This is illustrated in table 11 below.
Table 11: Time Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
| Time Before Speech Delivery | Freq
|
Moment of Speech Delivery | Freq | After Speech Delivery | Freq |
| Past
Last
|
3
1 |
Now
Present
|
7
1 |
Will
Shall Next |
16
2 1 |
| Total | 4 | 8 | 19 |
Source: Researcher (2020)
The analysis established the President Museveni’s employed a number of time deixis throughout his inaugural address. It was observed that, time referents conveying a time after the delivery of the speech or rather the future were used more. Future referents occurred at 19 out of 31 whereas time conveying the moment during the actual speech delivery were recorded at 8 out of 31. Time referents indicating a time before the speech was delivered were the least recorded at 4 out of 31.
4.2.3.4 Social Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
The content analysis of Museveni’s Inaugural speech indicated that the president used social deixis. The social deictic terms identified were; titles and forms of address as well as kinship terms. 10 social deictic terms were identified and they occurred in different frequencies. This is illustrated in figure 15 below.
Figure 15 Social Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on this analysis, it was found that President Museveni employed different types of social deixis in his inaugural speech. 10 social deictic terms were identified in the inaugural speech. The social deictic terms occurred at different frequencies; ‘Excellencies’ 5, ‘hon and honorable’5, ‘brothers’ 2, ‘sisters’ 2, ‘lordship’ 1‘highnesses’ 1 ‘gentleman’ 1, ‘ladies’ 1 and ‘guests’ 1.The social deictic terms were categorized into two major axis. The first axis contained absolute forms of address while the second indicated relational forms of address. This is illustrated in table 12 below:
Table 12: Social Deixis in Museveni’s Inaugural Speech
| Absolute Social
Deixis |
Freq | Relational Social
Deixis |
Freq |
| Excellencies
Hon Honorable Gentlemen Ladies Guest Lordship Highnesses |
5
3 2 1 1 1 1 1 |
Brothers
Sisters
|
2
2 |
| Total | 15 | 4 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on this analysis, President Museveni used more absolute social deictic expressions than relational social deixis. Absolute social deixis comprised of titles and forms of address whereas relational social deixis comprised of kinship terms. Absolute deixis occurred at 15 out of 19 while relational social deixis occurred at 4 out of19. The choice of the social deictic terms depended on the roles they played as well as the effects the president wanted to achieve.
4.2.4 Types of Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
The findings from the analysis of Uhuru’s most recent inaugural speech indicated that the president used deixis. The analysis focused on four types of deixis, that is person, place, time and social. The analysis was done systematically by identifying and describing each type of deixis in the inaugural speech.
4.2.4.1 Person Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
The findings on the content analysis of Uhuru’s inaugural Speech indicated that the President used person deictic expressions. The search wordlist for person deixis included first person pronouns; ‘I’ ‘we’ ‘my’ ‘mine’ ‘us’ ‘our’ ‘ours’ ‘ourselves’ and ‘myself’. It also included second person pronoun such as ‘you’ ‘your’ and ‘yours’. Third person pronouns included, ‘them’, ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘, and ‘themselves’. The analysis through AntiCon 3.5.8 found that President Uhuru employed 20 different person deictic terms throughout his speech. The person deictic terms occurred at different frequencies; ‘our’ 98, ‘we’ 88, ‘I’49, ‘you’44, ‘my’29, ‘your’25, ‘us’22, ‘they’ 18, ‘their’14, ‘me’ 12, ‘he’ 5, ‘them’ 5, ‘yours’ 4, ‘yourselves’ 4, ‘her’ 4, ‘him’ 3, ‘his’2, ‘theirs’ 1, ‘she’ 1, ‘and ‘ours’ 1. This is illustrated in figure 16 below.
Figure 16 Person Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
Person deictic terms were categorized into three groups; First, second and third person deixis. First person deixis comprised of terms such ‘I’ ‘my’ ‘me’ ‘our’ ‘we’ ‘us’ ‘and ‘ours’. First person deictic expressions were the most frequently used in the inaugural speech and occurred at a frequency of 429 out of a total of 4002 words. Second person deictic expressions occurred at a frequency of 77 while third person occurred at a frequency of 53. The choice of the type of person deictic expressions depended on the roles they were used for as well as the effects the president wanted to achieve. Person deictic expressions facilitated effective communication in the inaugural speech. This is illustrated in table 13 below:
Table 13: Person Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
| First Person | Freq | Second Person | Freq | Third Person | Freq |
| I
My Me Our We Us Ours |
49
29 12 98 88 22 1 |
You
Your Yours Yourselves |
44
25 4 4 |
They
Their He Them Her Him His Theirs She |
18
14 5 5 4 3 2 1 1 |
| Total | 299 | 77 | 53 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
It is further observed that, President Uhuru used more first person plural deixis that signify collectivism than singular first person pronouns that signify individualism. Out of a total of 299 first person deixis 209 were collective terms while 90 were individualistic terms. Second person occurred at a frequency of 77 out of 429 while third person was the least used at a frequency of 53. The choice of person deixis depended upon the roles they played as well as the effects the president wanted to achieve.
4.2.4.2 Place Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
The findings of the content analysis of Uhuru’s inaugural speech indicated that the president used place deictic expressions. The search wordlist for place deixis contained adverbs of place ‘here’, there’ and demonstratives ‘this’, ‘that’ ‘these’, ‘those’. It was established that 411 words in Uhuru’s speech words were place deictic expressions. President Uhuru used six place deictic expression in different frequencies. ‘That’ occurred at the highest frequency of 191, followed by ‘this’ at a frequency of 90, ‘those’ 50 ‘these’ occurred at a frequency of 12 and ‘here’ occurred at a frequency of 6 .This is illustrated in figure 17 below.
Figure 17 Place Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
The spatial deictic terms were further categorized into two groups; those that referred to things that were near the speaker as the deictic center (proximal) and those that referred to things or people that were away from the deictic center (distal). Proximal place deixis terms identified were ‘here’, ‘this’ and ‘these’ while distal place deixis terms identified were , ‘there’, ‘those’ and ‘that’. This is illustrated in table 14 below.
Table14: Place Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
| Distal Deixis | Freq | Proximal Deixis | Freq |
| That
Those There |
48
5 5 |
This
These Here |
34
6 1 |
| Total | 58 | 41 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
The findings of the analysis establish that out of a total of 4002 words in uhuru’s inaugural speech, 99 were spatial deictic terms. It is further observed that Uhuru used distal deixis more frequently than proximal deictics. Distal deixis occurred at 58 while proximal occurred at 41.
4.2.4.3 Time Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
The findings established that President Uhuru used time deictic expressions in his Inaugural address. A total number of 13 time deictic expressions were identified. The temporal deictics occurred at different frequencies. The search wordlist on AntiCon contained different time referents such as ‘today’, ‘future’, ‘after’, ‘now’, ‘past’, ‘present’, ‘next’, ‘ago’, ‘will’, ‘shall’, ‘yesterday’ , ‘been’, ‘since ‘and ‘last’. ‘ Will’ occurred at the highest frequency of 50 ‘today’ 14, ‘shall’, 13 , ‘been’ 10, ‘next’ 5,, ‘next’ 9, ‘now’ 4, ‘last’ 4, ‘future’ 3, ‘before’ 3, ‘during’ 2, ‘ago’ 1 ‘past’ 1 and ‘tomorrow’ 1. This is illustrated in figure 18 below:
Figure 18 Time Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
The identified temporal deictic terms were categorized into three categories; those that referred to the time before the inaugural speech was delivered, those that referred to the actual moment of the inaugural speech delivery and those that referred to the time after the speech delivery. This is illustrated in table 15 below:
Table15: Time Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
| Before Speech Delivery | Freq | Moment of
Speech Delivery |
Freq | Time After Speech Delivery | Freq |
| Been
Last Before During Ago Past |
10
4 3 2 1 1 |
Today
Now
|
14
4
|
Will
Shall Next Future Tomorrow
|
50
13 5 3 1 |
| Total | 21 | 18 | 72 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Temporal referents that referred to the time after the inaugural speech delivery were the most frequently used. Out of 111 time referents, 72 referred to a future time after delivery of the inaugural speech. 18 time referents referred to the actual present moment of the inaugural speech delivery. 21 time referents indicated a past time before the delivery of the inaugural address.
4.2.4.4 Social Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
The analysis of Uhuru’s Inaugural speech on November 28th 2017 indicated that the president used social deictic expressions. The social deictic terms identified ranged from; kinship terms, endearing terms to titles of address as well as forms of address. The social deictic expressions conveyed the hierarchical structure of the society. Uhuru used both absolute social deictic expressions and relational social deictic expressions. The inaugural speech was run through AntiCon 3:5:8 and the results are illustrated in figure19 below.
Figure 19 Social Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on the results above, 8 social deictic words were identified in from Uhuru’s inaugural speech. ‘Fellow’ 14, ‘brothers’ 8, ‘sisters’ 7, ‘ladies’ 4, ‘gentlemen’4, ‘brother’ 3, ‘excellencies’ 2, ‘guest’ 1, and ‘dear’ 1.The social deictic terms were categorized into two major axis that demarcated language aspects in the inaugural speech that revealed the social positions between Uhuru and his addressee as well as thee social relationships between Uhuru and his addressee.. The first axis contained terms that indicated an absolute relationship between the speaker and the addressee through the use of titles and forms of address while the second axis indicated a relational relationship through the use of kinship terms and endearing words. This is summarized in table 17 below:
Table 14: Social Deixis in Uhuru’s Inaugural Speech
| Relational Social Deixis | Freq | Absolute Social Deixis | Freq |
| Fellow
Brothers Sister Brother Dear |
14
8 7 3 1 |
Ladies
Gentlemen Excellencies Guest
|
4
4 2 1
|
| Total | 33 | 11 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
Basing on this analysis President Uhuru Kenyatta used more relational social deictic expressions than absolute social deixis. Relational social deixis comprised of kinship terms and endearing terms while absolute social deictics included titles and forms of address. Out of a total of 44 social deictic words 33 were used to indicate relational social deixis while 11 indicate absolute social deixis. The choice of the deictic terms depended on the roles they played as well as the effects the president wanted to achieve.
4.2.5 Comparison on the Findings of Deixis use in the Selected Inaugural Speeches by Presidents in East Africa.
This sections shows a comparison of the findings on deixis use in the four selected inaugural speeches by Presidents in East Africa. When comparing the use of deixis in the inaugural speeches. It is established that the presidents used deixis. Four types of deixis were identified in in each of the speeches. This is illustrated in the table below:
Table 15: A Frequency Comparison of Deixis Use in Selected Inaugural Speeches by Presidents of East Africa
| Type Of Deixis | Kagame | Kiir | Museveni | Uhuru |
| Person Deixis
First Person Second Person Third Person Total Person Deixis |
90 13 7 110 |
283 17 87 387 |
67 12 9 88 |
299 77 53 429 |
| Place deixis
Distal Proximal Total Place Deixis |
30 11 41 |
163 37 200 |
12 19 31 |
58 41 99 |
| Temporal Deixis
Time before speech Time of speech Time after speech Total Time Deixis |
4 6 9 19 |
33 13 78 124 |
4 8 19 31 |
21 18 72 111 |
| Social Deixis
Relational Absolute Total Social Deixis |
6 4 10 |
26 9 35 |
4 15 19 |
11S 33 44 |
| Total Deixis | 180 | 746 | 169 | 683 |
Source: Research Data (2020)
The comparison table shows that presidents in East Africa used deixis in their inaugural speeches. The findings established in all the four selected speeches, person deictic expressions were the most frequently used. Temporal and place deixis occurred either in second and third position while social deictic expressions were the least used. The deictic expression were used in different contexts within the selected inaugural speeches.
The comparison of the findings of deixis use in the four selected inaugural speeches is illustrated in figure 20.
Figure 20. A Comparative Bar graph on Deixis Use in Selected Inaugural Speeches by Presidents in East Africa
The findings established that, the presidents used three types of person deictic expressions. That is, first, second and third person. First person deictic expressions were the most frequently used. In Kagame’s inaugural speech, first person occurred at 81.8%, second person at 11.8%, and third person at 6.4 %. In Kiir’s inaugural speech, first person occurred at 73.1%, second person 4.4% and third person at 22.5%. In Museveni’s inaugural speech, first person occurred at 76.1%, second person at 13.7 % and third person at 10.2%. In Uhuru’s speech, person deixis occurred at 69.69%, second person at 17.94% and third person at 12.35%. This is illustrated in figure 21 below.
Figure 21 A Comparative Bar Graph showing Person Deixis in Selected Inaugural Speeches.
Source: Research Data
The findings established that, the presidents used two types of Place deictic expressions in their inaugural speech. Place deictic expressions were categorized into distal and proximal. Kagame used 73.17 % distal place deictics and 26.83 proximal place deictics. In Kiir speech distal place deictics occurred at 81.5% while proximal occurred at 18.5%. In Museveni’s speech distal occurred at 38.70% while proximal occurred at 61.29 %. In Uhuru’s speech distal place deixis occurred at 58.59% while proximal occurred at 41.41 %. It was found that Kagame, Kiir and Uhuru used distal place deictic expressions more frequently while Museveni used more proximal deictic expressions more frequently. This is illustrated in figure 22 below.
Figure 22 A Comparative Bar Graph showing Place Deixis in Selected Inaugural Speeches
Source Research Data 2020
It was further observed that, the presidents used three categories of temporal deictic expressions. The presidents used temporal deictic expressions that made reference to the time before the inaugural speech delivery (present), time at the moment of the speech (present) and time after inaugural speech delivery (future). In Kagame’s speech past time deixis occurred at 21.05%, present at 31.58% and future at 47.37%. In Kiir’s speech past time deictics occurred at 26.61%, present deictics at 10.48% and future temporal deictics at 62.90%. In Museveni’s inaugural speech present temporal deictics occurred at 12.90%, present at 28.81% and future temporal deictic expressions at 62.29% in Uhuru’s inaugural speech, present temporal deixis occurred at 18.91%, present at 16.22% and future temporal deixis at 64.86%. In the four selected inaugural speeches, the presidents used more future temporal deictic expressions. This is illustrated in figure 23 below.
Figure 23 A Comparative Bar Graph showing Temporal Deixis in Selected Inaugural Speeches
Source Research Data 2020
Lastly, in regard to types of deixis in selected inaugural speeches, it is found that, the presidents used two types of social deixis. The presidents used both relational absolute social deictic in different contexts within their inaugural speeches. In Kagame’s inaugural speech absolute social deixis occurred at 60% while relational deixis occurred at 40%. In Kiir’s Inaugural speech absolute social deixis occurred at 74.29% while relational deixis occurred at 25.71%. In Museveni’s inaugural speech absolute social deixis occurred at 21.05% while relational occurred at 78.95 %. In Uhuru’s inaugural speech absolute deixis occurred at 75% while relational occurred at 25%. It is noted that, president Kagame, Kiir and Uhuru used more absolute deictic expressions in their inaugural speeches while Museveni used more relational deictic expressions in his inaugural speech. This is illustrated in figure 24 below.
Figure 24 A Comparative Bar Graph showing Social Deixis in Selected Inaugural Speeches
Source Research Data 2020