Emotional Intelligence (EI)
The Emotional Intelligence (EI) concept created exceptional interest in the science and lay fields. Moreover, researchers and academicians find this topic necessary in their dealings even though it came to existence for the past 25 years (Ohlson & Anderson, 2015; Cartwright & Solloway, 207; White, 2019). Recently, literature and researchers have been directing their interest in this EI concept at the expense of different forms (Orgambide et al., 2015). Various parties, including educators, researchers, philosophers, and researchers, have worked towards a common goal of determining whether feelings and emotions have a positive or negative impact on people’s lives (Tighe, 2015; Dhani & Sharma, 2016).
Many researchers have excessively researched and criticized Emotional Intelligence. In 1990, Salovey and Mayer first described EI, but Daniel Goleman discovered its global knowledge in 1996. They view EI as an essential element for effective functioning in the marketplace (Nair & Lee, 2006; Perez et al., 2018). After the discovery of this concept, there have been several research findings in explaining human behavior from different environmental settings (Beauvais et al., 2011; Tomar, 2016a). Therefore, the researchers found out that Emotional Intelligence in humans is caused by the environment of operation and genetic inheritance. The influence as a result of the environmental setting is categorized into three phases, which include early ages of childhood, adolescence stage, and adulthood (Taft, 2013; Tighe, 2015; Hasanpour et al., 2018).
Definition of Emotional Intelligence
Salovey and Mayer were the first to propose the formal definition and formulate the first model of Emotional Intelligence. Individuals in possession of high EI are capable of applying their emotions to help them deal with situations aimed at problem-solving (Peter Salovey & Sluyter, 1997; Peter Salovey et al., 2009). Emotionally intelligent persons can manage emotional impulses better than those who lack. This is because they can determine their exact feelings and express them (Edussuriya et al., 2018; Perez et al., 2018). Moreover, they can understand other people’s opinions and thinking capacity. They readily understand and evaluate dynamics in a particular group and know when and where to fit themselves. D Golman (1995) and Goleman et al. (2013) posit that EI is the abilities that are relational, social, or interactive and present in almost every facet of a person’s life. EI is an important indicator of success in the workplace and especially in leadership.
Emotional Intelligence in simple terms refers to the ability to recognize, make an identification, expression of feelings, understanding and regulation of emotions to impact positively or negatively in and individual and others, and the ability to accept self-emotions and how we feel about them together with their impact on oneself and other individuals. Emotional Intelligence would also describe differences in individual’s dealings in various professions (Zeidner et al., 2012; Tomar, 2016b; Cartwright & Salloway, 2017).
The theoretical perspective of Emotional Intelligence
Several theories have explained the skills, characteristics, and capabilities related to Emotional Intelligence. All these theories and associated models in conceptualizing EI fall under three lines of thoughts, which include features, ability, and a combination of the two termed as the mixed approach.
Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) EI Model
The trio offered a conceptual model of EI that included four “abilities” that were related to EI and referred to a concentrated blend of emotion and Intelligence. The four-ability model included the abilities to deem, facilitate, comprehend and control feelings and thoughts (Salovey et al., 2004)
Perception, the first ability of the EI model, was the perception of emotions, which referred to the “capacity to recognize emotion in others’ facial and postural expressions.” It also entailed the recognition of emotions in other forms of exchanges or contacts. Facilitation; the second ability of the model is the translation of emotions into feelings and then manipulation of those feelings to enable thoughts. Facilitation also included the ability to make judgments regarding emotions and develop perspectives about the feelings that accompanied emotions. The third ability is understanding, which consisted of the ability to explain and examine emotions, watch them over a period of time, and know what to expect as a result of the feelings. Management; the fourth and final branch that involved dealing with feelings in alignment with personal values and societal norms. This branch included self-management of emotions by the use of own abilities to calm and reassure emotions while treating with pressure and stress (Peter Salovey & Sluyter, 1997; Ohlson & Anderson, 2015; Peter Salovey et al., 2009; Mayer et al., 2008)
Goleman model of EI
This model was first published in 1998 and included five domains of emotional competencies or “traits” and learned abilities. These domains consisted of social skills, motivation, empathy, self-regulation, and self-awareness. In 2000, Goleman collaborated with Boyatzis and Rhee to refine the model from five domains to four, which are: self-management, relationship management, self-awareness, and social awareness. They used the Emotional Competence Inventory to measure the twenty competencies of the four domains (D Golemen, 1995; Boyatzis et al., 2000).
Self-awareness consisted of the abilities from accurate self-assessment, emotional self-awareness, and self-confidence. Moreover, they pointed out that leaders with EI were highly aware of their inner thoughts and recognized how those resultant emotions affected their job performance. Self-management, this domain contained the abilities of transparency, initiative, optimism, control, adaptability, and control. Besides, those with strong self-management abilities continually learned to improve and challenge themselves to new goals. Social awareness comprised of the skills of empathy, organizational knowledge, and service, which included a broad span of emotions and relationships. Those individuals with strong social awareness abilities were in harmony with their emotional signs and feelings; they were good listeners and well-developed inner values. Last, relationship management incorporated the characteristics of leadership, inspiration, development of others, influence, change of catalyst, collaboration, teamwork, and management of conflict. Those with high relationship management skills encouraged and inspired those around them and excelled at recognizing the potential in others on their team (D Goleman, 1995; Goleman et al., 2013).
Bar-On Model of EI. He noted that his theory on Emotional-Social Intelligence was “cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand others and relate with them, and cope with daily demand.” This model comprised of five main skill areas, each of which included subsets of competencies of skills (Bar-On et al., 1997; Bar-On, 2010).
Intrapersonal skills included assertiveness, independence, self-regard, and self-awareness emotions; individuals bearing a robust intrapersonal set of skills were familiar with their inner feelings and core values. Interpersonal skills consist of social responsibility, empathy, and interpersonal relationships. Individuals with strong understanding could adjust to a wide assortment of emotions within themselves and others. Stress management; this subset included impulse control and the ability to tolerate stress. It also added the ability to cope with stress, correctly perceive information, and solve both personal and interpersonal problems. Adaptability skills included the ability to solve problems, flexibility, and testing reality. Being able to handle numerous demands and concentrate on solving problems creatively in any organizational venue would be valuable both to leaders and to their followers. General mood skills included optimism and happiness and noted that happiness infused positivity into individuals and contributed to a person’s wellbeing, energy, and the ability to cope with stress (Bar-On et al., 1997).
Importance of EI
Emotional Intelligence relates to the wellbeing and happiness of an individual. Different studies correlate Emotional Intelligence with mental health and overall physical health in an individual. Meanwhile, low Emotional Intelligence is related to violence, delinquency, and drug use (Tighe, 2015; Aziza & Yussef, 2017). EI is globally recognized as an essential skill that enhances communication, controlling, relationship, and solving problems in the working environment. Moreover, researchers posit that training and practice improve this skill (Abraham & Scaria, 2017; Aziza & Yussef, 2017).
Researchers suggest that there is a relationship between a person’s performance in the workplace and Emotional Intelligence. This is because the workplace is conducive to the development of an individual’s EI since one is motivated by success and being promoted (Tighe, 2015; Magnano et al., 2016). Also, research has proven that Emotional Intelligence in healthcare enhances general performance, leadership skills, and productivity. EI is considered as an essential attribute to possess in the practice of healthcare, which requires skills such as the ability to adapt to clinical situations appropriately and have favorable interpersonal relations, which in turn may affect the outcome of the patient (Edussuriya et al., 2018; White, 2019).
A better healthcare relationship between professionals and patients depends on the kind of communication they have. This is because excellent communication enhances the effective treatment and experience of patients. A comprehensive survey in healthcare states that EI had a positive contribution to nurses and doctor-patient relationships, with improved teamwork, management of stress, commitment in organization, leadership and communication skills, and collaboration (Edussuriya et al., 2018). EI is essential to medical professionals as it is associated with self-monitoring, which would not only facilitate adapting to clinical situations appropriately but also improve interpersonal relations. This results both in a favorable outcome for the patient and also promotes the wellbeing of the practitioner (Tomar, 2016b, Jessen, 2017; Webb, 2019).
Emotional Intelligence in Nursing
Emotional Intelligence has caught global attention and associates with several disciplines such as nursing, education, business, and medicine. Research findings have proved the relationship between EI and the nursing field. This is because EI is used in morally upright and competent nursing practitioners with the ability to balance their personal and professional life. Therefore, there is a need to incorporate Emotional Intelligence in the nursing field (Dempley & Reilly, 2016; Perez et al., 2018). A strong relationship between a patient and a nurse is essential in the nursing profession. This depends on three main themes, namely: care delivery, nursing for practice, and Competency of EI in dealing with the competent nursing domain emotionally. Additionally, EI is useful in determining the outcomes of patients (Zeidner et al., 2012; Codier & Odell, 2014; Nair & Lee, 2016; Tomar, 2016a).
Emotional Intelligence has reduced stress levels and improved job satisfaction in a healthcare system. Moreover, a person can obtain a competitive edge as a result of EI. The value and productivity of managers are not only determined by the level of IQ they have but how they apply Emotional Intelligence. Individuals who have higher IQ but lack EI fail in their private and professional domains (Tomar, 2016; Perez et al., 2018).
Goleman argued that there exist similarities of traits on competent leaders; they all possess a high degree of Emotional Intelligence. This does not mean that IQ is not relevant since they are used as “threshold capabilities.” However, empirical studies have shown a minimal relationship between EI possessed by leaders and the influence they have on staff and organizational outcomes (Goleman, 1995; Vyas, 2015).
Impact of Emotional Intelligence of head nurses
The Head nurse is generally a registered nurse in charge of other nurses of a healthcare facility, hospital, or medical institution and has a direct influence on the culture of a work environment. A good nurse leader should possess Emotional Intelligence. Also, they have the mandate to observe how nurses under them perform and handle all assignments, including maintenance of medical records, review, and sign relevant procedures and practices related to nursing. Moreover, the head nurse facilitates training sessions of nurses and the forming of competent nursing teams (Willyard, 2017). Consequently, the head nurse must be alert, relevant, and focus on the care of the patients (Jeffree, 2013; Test, 2018).
A nurse leader was one who managed and had 24-hour accountability of a single or many established sections in the nursing domain. The primary responsibilities included managing the care of patients, human resource management, and operational management based on the job description of that position (Kindipan, 2017).
Emotionally intelligent nurse leaders can improve their organization beginning with employees. They usually support their staff emotionally regarding their work environment through educational programs. Their role is to assist nurses in experiencing stress, cope with the situation, and manage it appropriately (Edussuriya et al., 2018).
There were variations between EI and a nurse’s general performance in the working environment. Emotional competence is the capability learned developed to achieve incredible performance. Therefore a training program on Emotional Intelligence must focus on the current situation, essential skills, and ethics for nurses and their associated nurse heads (Bakr & Safaan, 2012; Taft, 2013; Aziza & Yussef, 2017).
Researchers discussed the functions of Emotional Intelligence in management by nurses and stressed on using EI in by head nurses in interacting with group nurses and physicians. Lack of EI will result in communication difficulties among the parties (nurses, head nurses, physicians, and the organization) (Merkey, 2010; Willyard, 2017). Nurses in a managerial position use EI in managing the nurse-patient relationship and that among nurses and other staff (Merkey, 2010; Tighe, 2015; Webb, 2019).
Nursing leaders deal with numerous issues daily in both patient and personal situations, and it would be beneficial to have the ability to display optimism and happiness to minimize stress (Bar-On, 2010; Taft, 2013; Zhu et al., 2015).
Nursing empowerment
Most organizations have established an empowerment framework that allows employees to take part in decision making and have equal responsibilities, and this enhances the effectiveness and performance of staff (Kretzschmer et al., 2017). When employees are empowered, they possess the authority to take part in decision making; this not being the case as before. The distribution of powers in employees makes them active and results in organizational efficiency and commitment. Moreover, this empowerment initiative leads to improved outcomes in critical care nursing (Dempsey & Reilly, 2016; Kelly, 2019).
Empowerment relates one’s strengths, natural systems, and essential behaviors to social change. The theory and intervention connect one’s wellbeing with the political and social environment at large (Zahra, 2015). Empowering an individual is granting them power which they had limited access in the past and also gives the relevant resources and social structure associated with that power. Additionally, an individual can develop his/her skills and access resources for problem-solving and gain worth in their actions (Moran et al., 2017)
There is the creation of opportunities that help members acquire skills, take part in making decisions and also share responsibilities in a conducive environment (Peterson, 2014; Singh & Chatterjee; 2015; Kelly, 2019). Empowerment results in innovative behavior and is essential for an organization’s success. Research shows that nurses are more comfortable working in an environment that provides for inclusion in decision making and where there are mutual relationships between physicians and other staff members (Laschinger et al., 2001; Kretzchmer et al., 2017; Walker, 2018).
Nursing empowerment in the workplace
In an organization, the administration is mainly concerned with ensuring that nursing professionals work in a conducive environment. From this perspective, empowerment is essential as it helps professionals give efficient care and have a vibrant nurse-patient relationship, thus the need to have empowered environments in organizations globally (Al-Dweik et al., 2016; de Almeida et al., 2017).
Individuals perceive powerfulness when having a high degree of access to these power structures in the workplace, resulting in increased employee wellbeing, engagement, job satisfaction, and commitment. In contrast, employees would perceive powerlessness when lacking access to power structures. This results in employees feeling excluded and discounted from decision-making in the organization. In such powerless working environments, employee’s levels of frustration, burnout, and dissatisfaction increase, and engagement and organizational commitment behaviors deteriorate. Nurses used it to provide high-quality care in hospitals when giving care to patients (Kanter et al., 1993; Sharma & Kirkman; Aljarameez, 2019).
Theoretical perspectives of empowerment in the organization
According to Kanter’s theory, power refers to being able to integrate an individual and other resources to meet an organization’s set goals. The position of employees in the hierarchy of the organization is more crucial in obtaining power than their characteristics. Kanter posits that structural elements in the organization greatly influences empowerment. Employees quickly have access to needed support, resources, opportunities, and information for growth in an organization where there is empowerment. This empowerment is enhanced by being able to communicate effectively, performing required tasks as requires, and better interpersonal relationships (Kanter et al., 1993; Cho et al., 2006; Gilbert et al., 2010; Healy, 2017; Aljarameez, 2019b).
Opportunity access; employees have access to opportunities in terms of training and ability to grow and develop, thus boosting productivity and their satisfaction. They are much motivated, have innovative culture and commitment in their work roles due to access to the opportunities. However, low aspirations come up in a case where there is limited access to opportunities in the workplace. Information access refers to being able to access both formal and informal knowhow that is effective in the work environment. Therefore employees should have the necessary expertise and technical knowledge needed for job accomplishment and understanding decisions and policies formulated by the organization. Access to resources; these resources are in terms of finances, time, supplies, and equipment needed for the work. Lastly, access to support involves getting necessary help, guidance, and feedback from supporting staff and management. There exist several research studies linking commitment to empowerment (Kanter et al., 1993; Ledwell et al., 2006; Kim & Kim, 2019; Richardson, 2019).
There are two types of powers, which are formal and informal power. Legal power originates from particular job traits related to discretionary decision-making power such as flexibility, adaptability, creativity, visibility, and deeply rooted in the goals set by an organization. For example, employees can recognize formal power from job roles, titles, and interdepartmental relationships. Informal power originates from social links and the establishment of personal networks and how communication is relayed within the organization, with core workers. Individuals with informal power may be the most experienced or knowledgeable in certain areas and have the ability to lead others to achieve individual goals or accomplish specific tasks without an official leadership title (Ledwell et al., 2006; Smith, 2019).
Global empowerment refers to a motivational formulation that gives an active and positive attitude in the workplace, which is characterized by self-efficacy and independence in the workplace (Spreitzer, 1995, 2008; Hayes et al., 2014; Atmospera, 2017; Jordan, 2019). Empowerment is also enhancing self-independence feelings where there are conditions that bring about powerlessness and how they are eliminated using formal and informal organizational techniques (Congo & Kanungo, 1998; Cowden et al., 2011; Gulzer et al., 2015; Kindipan, 2017).
Benefits of empowerment in the nursing context
In healthcare institutions, nurses encounter a lot of problems and challenges that make them stressed most of the time. So, it is necessary to have support and empowerment from nursing directors, supervisors, co-workers, and general manager of the hospital. An organization is more productive when there is a conducive workplace environment that is valued by employees (Laschinger et al., 2015; Al Ghamdi, 2016; Healy, 2017). Studies show that nurses who are empowered are highly motivated and can pass the same motivation to others. Also, they encounter less pressure and do not use much energy, unlike those who lack empowerment. Furthermore, empowerment boosts the health of an individual, satisfaction, self-esteem, and individual competence that enhances general perception aimed at improving results (Al-Dweik et al., 2016; Walker, 2018).
Nurses have the mandate to foster for safety and delivery of quality care to patients at the healthcare institution they are based on. Research has been conducted to find the relationship between the kind of nursing care and the results associated with that care. However, there is limited information known on this relationship (Almutairi, 2015; Gulzar et al., 2015). Consequently, there is a strong relationship between structural empowerment and the safety of patients relayed by registered nurses and other support staff. Also, acceptance of structural empowerment by leaders may help formulate strategies geared towards a democratic work environment where there is integrity, honesty, error-free, and professionalism (Armellino et al., 2010; Cheng & Boey, 2016; Atmospera, 2017). Empowerment in literature is aimed at boosting perceptions of individual control, which directly affects the results of a health care institution (Al-Dweik, Al-Daken, Abu-Snieneh & Ahmad, 2016). Some authors have defined empowerment as a form of decentralization, which involves assigning essential authority to low-level employees and consider empowerment as a solution to the old problem (Zahra, 2015; Van Bogaert et al., 2016; Collins, 2018).
Emotional Intelligence concerning empowerment in a nursing context
Nursing leaders have an essential role in ensuring that nurses work in a conducive work environment. Nursed can complete tasks assigned to them in a meaningful manner and enhance the quality of patient outcomes due to high personal traits possessed by their leaders (D Goleman, 1995; Daniel Goleman et al., 2013; Livesey, 2017). Therefore, organizations should aim at promoting highly competent nurse leaders who are equipped with Emotional Intelligence skills and are knowledgeable in the nursing field for prospects (Young-Ritchie et al., 2007).
Young-Ritchie, Laschinger, and Wong (2007), in their study titled “The effects of emotionally intelligent leadership behavior on emergency staff nurses’ workplace empowerment and organizational commitment,” found out that nurses’ empowerment feelings were derived from the perception they had on their emotionally intelligent leaders. Therefore nurse leaders who can evaluate emotional tone in given situations communicate relevant information to their subordinates, thus influencing the working environment of nurses and the way resources are allocated (Young-Ritchie et al., 2007).
Then in 2008, Lucas, Lashchinger, and Wong published research titled “The impact of emotionally intelligent leadership on staff nurse empowerment: the moderating effect of a span of control,” conducted in a Canadian hospital. Findings from this study suggested that empowerment in staff nurses relates to EI possessed by managers. Also, empowerment is related to how managers are recognized and how they can recognize their emotional relationships with their subordinates (Lucas et al., 2008).
Furthermore, there was a study conducted by Erkutlu and Chafra in Turkey, entitled “The impact of team empowerment on proactivity: The moderating roles of a leader’s emotional intelligence and proactive personality.” Here, the researchers found that the team leader’s EI is essential for useful team functionality since the leader is a motivating tool and a link for communication and relationship among members. They achieve this by following the set standards, team empowerment, and identity recognition (Erkutlu & Chafra, 2012).
Emotional Intelligence and nursing empowerment in the Saudi context
According to reviewed research conducted in Saudi Arabia, there were no studies linked to nursing empowerment with emotional Intelligence, especially in the last ten years, based on extensive reviewing of literature. On the other hand, few published researchers have been found to belong to nursing empowerment and emotional Intelligence separately.
Emotional Intelligence was researched more than nursing empowerment. In the last five years, there were six studies conducted in different regions of Saudi Arabia; most of them were in Jeddah. In Jeddah, a survey conducted by Aziza and Yussef in 2017 aimed at exploring Emotional Intelligence possessed by nurse leaders in hospitals belonging to the Ministry of Health. The researchers found out that most nurse managers can recognize the emotions they possess during their practice. The leaders understand the change in their emotions. However, a small section posits that they experienced emotions and knew how to manage it (Aziza & Yussef, 2017).
A study conducted by Hashish and Bajbeir was aimed at determining the relationship between EI in Saudi nursing students and their critical thinking capability. The research also found out that nursing students are emotionally intelligent and can perceive, comprehend other’s emotions, control, and harvest emotion. Therefore the students can understand the required skills concerning Emotional Intelligence during their duration of studies; hence they are already equipped for future practice (Abou Hashish & Bajbeir, 2018).
Banjar, 2019, conducted a study pointing out how to be an effective leader through the measurement of Emotional Intelligence in nursing students Saudi at King Abdul University. The study results pointed out the factors leading to practical leadership competence as descending order attention, emotions management, and self-motivation, possession of social skills and empathy, and self-awareness (Banjar & El Seesy, 2019).
A study conducted by Alreshidi entitled, “The impact of a training intervention on emotional intelligence, leadership styles, self –efficacy, and perception of the sense of power in a university nursing faculty in Saudi Arabia.” The study aimed at testing the effect of emotional intelligence training to impact the level of emotional Intelligence in the employees of nursing colleges in Saudi Arabia. According to the study results, it was found out that Emotional Intelligence as a form of intervention can impact the development of skills and qualities, encompassed with self –efficacy. The study also further found out that important adjustments in all EL subscales, including emotion perception, self-emotions management, management of others’ emotions and use of the emotions), transformational leadership aspects, and self- efficacy (Al Reshidi, 2019).
Last but not least, Aldossary, 2019, did a study entitled “Study of emotional Intelligence among psychiatric mental health nurses in Eastern province, Saudi Arabia. The main aim of the study was to look at no emotional intelligence levels of psychiatric mental health nurses in the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. The results of the study showed that 28.1% of the psychiatric mental health nurses have a moderate level of El, while 2.5% indicate a lower level of EI. However, the results showed that the EL level, nurse job position, and Assigned department have a significant correlation (Aldossary et al., 2019).
On the other side, about emotional Intelligence, there were only three studies found in Saudi Arabia. Alghamdi and Urden (2016) e in their research, pointed out the significance of policies of health care and regulations on the journey of the hospital towards the designation of the magnet in Saudi Arabia. The study also ought to achieve the Gold standard in Saudi Arabia nursing practice. The international Magnet Model entails five categories, including structured empowerment, transformational leadership, new knowledge, empirical outcomes, innovations and improvements, and exemplary professional practice. They, therefore, recommended that nursing leadership are regulatory bodies in Saudi should empress on the assessment of the Hospitals capability in the application of Magnet Status. The Ministry of Health in Saudi Arabia should impact factors such as the satisfaction of nursing level and empowerment, reduced turnover to improve the nursing profession for effective results. To make this successful, assessment of the organizational and cultural climates should be implemented in a positive way, as well as a positive work environment. Furthermore, the level of nurse empowerment and competence shows the evidence towards achieving magnet status (Alghamdi & Urden, 2016).
Asiri, 2016 conducted a study in Riyadh City entitled “the association of leadership styles and empowerment with nurses’ organizational commitment in an acute health care setting.” The study results showed that meaningful involvement in decision making and empowerment techniques are vital factors leading to positive employee commitment, and this is through the transformational leadership method. As a manager, one requires to have managerial skills such as delegation of duties and power, taking their views into account and this will systematically empower the employee thus improving commitment (Asiri et al., 2016).
A study done by Aljarameez (2019) examined the relationship that exists among psychological empowerment, structural empowerment, and organizational commitment among registered nurses, both having Arabian nationality and foreigners. The study drew the following conclusions from the findings; the most significant one was that the structural empowerment, psychological empowerment, and organizational commitment have positive correlations. The dimensions of structural empowerment and the aspects of psychological empowerment and the existing practical evidence helps to provide insights into the empowerment and organizational commitment nurse relationship (Aljarameez, 2019)