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Organization Theory and Behavior

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Organization Theory and Behavior

 

PART I: ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT CONTINUUMS

Theory

X-Theory Y

Theories X and Y are salutary and straightforward

reminders of the fundamental rules of managing individuals, which, under the

pressures of the daily business, are forgotten quickly. Mc Gregor’s ideas imply

that there are two essential approaches to managing individuals. A Theory X

manager uses an authoritarian approach to management. According to the

management style, average people dislike work and will go to any extent to

avoid work. As a result, people need to be forced alongside punishment threats

to work toward organizational goals. Finally, theory X managers hold it that

the average individuals prefer to be ordered around; it is unambitious and

wants security above anything. On the other hand, theory Y managers are those

who practice a participative style of management. According to the theory,

effort in work is natural, like play and work, and individuals will exhibit

self-direction and self-control in the pursuit of organizational goals in the

absence of punishment threats and external control.

In times of organizational cutbacks, managers will

move from the Y approach to the X approach style of management. This is

because, in such times, productivity reduces, energy lacks, and attitude

towards work also worsens. Therefore, managers need to be result-oriented to

meet organizational objectives. In times of high corporate expansion, the

continuum shifts from the X to the Y extreme. This is because managers need to

get everyone on board, and therefore a participatory management style is ideal.

In times of low employee morale, the continuum also shifts from the X to the Y

extreme. Employees need to be given a certain level of independence, free of

punishment threats to pursue the goals of the organization. Finally, in times

of leadership uncertainties, the continuum moves from the Y to the X extreme.

This is because employees need to be directed and take responsibility for their

actions for results to be yielded.

Power-Authority

Authority is the formal right to make decisions

based on formal institutional relationships. It can also be seen as the right

of commanding others not to act or act in ways that are deemed by the possessor

of authority to advance the objectives of an organization. On the other hand,

power refers to the actual ability or potential of an individual to influence

the behavior of another or others. In times of organizational cutbacks, the

continuum shifts from authority to power. This is because, during such times,

the behavior of employees seems to take an adverse turn. Therefore, the best

approach is to adopt power in influencing events and the workforce to get

things done. Authority is such times may worsen their attitudes and morale

towards work. During a phase of organizational expansion, the continuum shifts

from power to authority. This is because authority flows from the top to the

bottom. Therefore, to fulfill objectives, managers need to get things done

through other people by virtue of their rights to make decisions. When there is

low morale, the continuum shifts from authority to power. This is because power

flows in any direction if the superiors can influence the behavior of the

employees; their morale can be boosted. Also, in such times, legitimacy is not

essential. For example, authority is official, while power needs not to be

formal. Thus, everyone has power and, therefore, can influence the other.

Finally, in times when there are uncertainties in leadership, the continuum

shifts from power to authority. In such times, if authority is not adopted,

organizational goals will not be met.

Conflict-Cooperation

In an organization, conflict can be described as a

state of discord arising from perceived or actual opposition of values, needs,

and interests between staff. Conflict often takes several forms, such as

inter-group conflicts, intra-group conflicts, and personal conflicts. On the

other hand, cooperation implies can be described as a state where organization

employees work together to achieve a common objective. This means a healthy

environment where employees work side by side to accomplish both organizational

and personal goals. In other words, when there is cooperation, employees work

with others rather than against each other to ensure optimum productivity. In

times of retrenchment, the continuum can shift from cooperation to conflict.

This is because, in such times, there are high rates of inefficiencies due to

reduced human resources. The most likely conflicts to arise in such a scenario

are inter-group and intra-group conflicts. This is mostly due to competition

and scarcity of resources. In times of organization expansion, the continuum

will shift from conflict to cooperation. This is because, when an organization

is growing, people need to work together to ensure that objectives are

achieved. For example, organization expansion comes with an increase in the

workforce, among other things. Thus, to ensure that the growth is sustained,

people have to work toward a common objective. In times of low employee morale,

the continuum may shift from cooperation to conflict. This the employees’

behavior is inseparable from the culture that surrounds it. If the culture

surrounding them reduces their morale, then there will be conflicts-personal,

inter-group, and intra-group. Lastly, in times of leadership uncertainties, the

continuum shifts from cooperation to conflict. This is because of the lack of

clear direction. This leaves the staff confused about the way to pursue to

fulfill the goals of the organization.

Orders-Incentives

In the most basic terms, an order is an

authoritative instruction to execute something. An incentive is something which

encourages or motivates one to do something. During organizational cutbacks,

the orders-incentive continuum shifts from orders to incentives. This is

because such times are graced with reduced productivity, low motivation, among

other things. Therefore, to turn around such a scenario, managers need to

motivate the employees for something to be done. Adopting the issuance of

orders approach will worsen the situation as the morale of employees will be

reduced. In times of organizational expansion, the continuum will shift from

incentives to orders. When an organization expands, the workforce also expands.

Therefore, for the organizational objectives to be achieved, clear and

authoritative instructions on who should do what, when, and how for activities

to be executed diligently. In scenarios where there is low employee morale, the

continuum sways from orders to incentives. Employees need to be motivated. The

primary incentive flavors can include moral, social, and economic incentives.

Usually, a single incentive scheme encompasses all three types. Finally, in

times where an organization has leadership uncertainties, the continuum shifts

from incentives to orders. What organizations lack in such times is the absence

of information regarding how, who, or even why an activity has taken place. In

such times, uncertainty will intensify and increase emotions. Orders are,

therefore need to ensure that everybody is on board.

Coalitions and Individuals

Coalitions can be defined as temporary alliances for

combined action, while individuals are single beings who are distinct from

groups. When an organization is going through a phase of retrenchment, the

coalition-individual continuum sways from individuals to coalitions. This is

because, in such times, activities are many, but the workforce has shrunk. It

is in such times that coalitions are invaluable in advocacy since they

establish a structure for both the individuals and the organization to share

ownership of similar objectives. Additionally, in such times, coalitions reduce

the duplication of resources and efforts. Further, coalitions facilitate the

exchange of skills, information, materials, experience, and also, opportunities

for collaboration. In times when the organization is expanding, the continuum

will again sway from individual to coalition. A coalition in such a scenario

will allow both the organization and the individual to network and offer encouragement,

peer support, professional recognition, and motivation. In a situation where

there is low employee morale, the continuum will shift from individual to

coalition. This is because, in coalitions, employees can always encourage each

other, share experiences, thereby boosting their morale. Finally, during

leadership uncertainties, the continuum will shift from coalition to

individual. This is because people become cautious about their attitudes. They

are afraid of making decisions or take action since they are not aware of how

to move forward or do not think it will make an impact. Consequently, they will

resort to individualism as opposed to colluding.

Bounded Rational Decisions-Incremental

Decisions

Bounded rationality refers to the idea that rationality

is limited when an individual makes a decision, by the traceability of the

decision problems, the cognitive constraints of the mind, and the time that is

available to make the decision. In other words, a bounded rational decision-maker

chose an alternative that will solve the problem at hand without focusing much

on ensuring that they have taken into account all possibilities. On the other

hand, incremental decisions are decisions that are not arrived at through one

massive leap toward the search of a remedy to a problem. Instead, an

incremental decision is where the process of making decisions is broken down

into small steps. Then, the process of moving in between the stages or steps is

based on the combination of intuition, experience, guessing and other

techniques. In times of organizational markets, the continuum shifts from

bounded rational decision to incremental decisions. This is because

retrenchment decisions need to take into account all the consequences of an

action. Retrenchment decisions are not made when rationality is limited. In

times of organizational expansion, the continuum can sway from bounded rational

decisions to incremental decisions. The organizational expansion calls for

critical planning, or else the organization will fail to meet the set goals as

a result of lack of planning. In a scenario where there is low employee morale,

the continuum tends to shift from incremental decisions to bounded rational

decisions. Lack of morale often pushes employees to act irrationally, thus

causing the shift. Finally, in a situation where there is leadership

uncertainty, the continuum sways from incremental decisions to a bounded

rational decision. Lack of clear leadership results into a lack of direction,

which consequently makes employees act in ways that are not rational. In other

words, uncertainty makes different people respond differently, yet they are in

the same organization.

SOP-Organizational Culture

Standard operating procedures imply documented

processes which an organization institutes to ensure that products and services

are consistently delivered each time. SOPs are usually used in the

demonstration of compliance with the operational or regulatory practices and to

document how activities need to executed in an organization. A procedure is not

a be-all, end-all remedy since it will not guarantee good results or excellent

performance. On the other hand, organizational culture entails behaviors and

values which contribute to the distinct psychological and social environment of

an organization.

Part II:

APPLICATION OF CONCEPTS (FAA)

Scientific management is a management model that

synthesizes and analyses the flow of work. Its main goal is to improve economic

efficiency, especially the productivity of labor. It was one of the first

attempts to incorporate science into the designing of processes to management.

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) includes scientific management to

increase economic benefits, improve production, and reduce costs. According to

Taylor, a manager has to shoulder certain responsibilities and accomplish some

objectives to which he or she is not accustomed so as to comprehend the

scientific technique and implement it entirely. FAA has to develop a science

for every element of the air traffic controllers’ work, which substitutes the

ancient rule of the thumb approach. In this regard, a redesign of the selection

of air traffic controllers and their work environment is necessary for FAA.

Since the job of an air traffic controller entails the relaying of traffic

management information for use in the process of decision making, tower staff

will work in the Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) or directly with the

Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs). Generally, the TRACON staff works

through the overlying ARTCC. Finally, the ARTCC staff work in coordination with

the Air Traffic Control System Command Center (ATCSCC). The ATCSCC has the

final word on all the country’s traffic management programs and is in charge of

resolving inter-facility challenges. The hierarchy for other challenges is for

every field facility to work through its head office, which ultimately reports

to the headquarters. From an incentive point of view, FAA accords adequate incentives.

This includes both monetary and non-monetary incentives. For instance, the pay

and benefits, and work-life benefits are competitive. The roles of supervisors

have also been succinctly stated to avoid confusion. Air traffic control has no

room for errors, and as a result, roles have to be outlined.

Scientific management can considerably help in

ensuring effective decisions are taken, and FAA management can overcome the

pre-existing informal and formal cultural constraints that may oppose the

redesign. Scientific management gives tools for workers to improve efficiency

and output. The approach is ideal for an air traffic controller because the

entails tasks and activities that are repetitive. Therefore, the main essence

of the strategy and principles are that the staff need to be selected based on

a specific skill set that is related to the job, wages and incentives need to

be competitive to encourage the personnel to improve output, FAA leadership has

created a standard approach for conducting certain activities, existence of

attention to eliminating interruptions, and eradication of the rule of thumb

and substituting it with other techniques that are founded on a scientific

study of activities.

Effective decisions can be achieved through the ease

of control. Managers have reasonable control over the execution of tasks. The

staff become specialists in their areas of work as they can do the same

activity over and over; this makes it convenient for a manager to have control

over his or her team. Inaccuracies are also decreased. Scientific management is

based on observation and experiment of context-specific remedies. Thus, with

adequate planning as well as improved decision-making, accuracy levels are

increased. Autocracy is also decreased as the approach triggers FAA management

to adopt positive relationships with the staff. Cooperation among managers and

staff improves democracy in the entity hence reducing autocracy by towing the

scientific management line. Furthermore, in the contemporary world, and especially

the aviation industry, technology is the only tool that is available to the

team that assists in making decision.

The adoption of the scientific management approach

in the organization will overcome both the pre-existing informal and formal

cultural constraints that would hinder the redesign. Formal cultural

constraints can arise in the form of unclear hierarchical structures or

ineffective operating procedures. The management eliminates such constraints

because, for it to be implemented, there needs to be a well-documented standard

operating procedure and a clear hierarchy of command. Therefore, change cannot

be resisted as the staff will smoothly transition as they specialize in their

various duties and responsibilities. Informal cultural constraints can take the

form of intra-group or inter-group conflicts. The approach prevents such since

the idea behind the theory is founded on teamwork. In an organization where

teamwork is vital, resistance to change is highly unlikely.

However, scientific management has its share of

controversies over the alleged inhumanity of the approach. It is argued that

the technique reduces employees to the level of efficiently operating machines.

In fairness, it should be noted that the principles may have been misunderstood.

For instance, a few sections of the opponents have been willing to practice one

of the important tenets-that pay and benefits of a highly-productive worker

needs not to have a limit. Such restrictions characterize the majority of the

incentive schemes. The unwillingness may constrain the “revolution in

mentality” that the founders of the theory sought. They required that both

sides or parties need to move away from the division of surplus as the all

essential matter and collectively focus their attention toward the increment of

the quantity of surplus.

PART III:

APPLICATION OF CONCEPTS

Visible Artefacts for Central Michigan and

Eastern Michigan

At Central Michigan University, the artifacts shown

in the video include student activity center and the activities conducted in

the center, resident halls (hostels), dining locations, Anspach hall, library,

science building, education and human service building, college of medicine,

book store, and open spaces. In other words, the artifacts highlighted encompass

what Central Michigan University has to offer both inside and outside the

classroom environment. On the other hand, the artifacts shown in the Eastern

Michigan University include the student center which harbors various resources,

eating locations, residential halls, library, kitchenettes, recreational

equipment and facilities, and college of business.

Emphasis in the Central Michigan Video and

Eastern Michigan Video

The Central Michigan video emphasizes various

elements. For instance, in the exhibition of dining locations, it can be seen

that multiple locations offer multiple types of food. This means that one can

choose to indulge in junk food or eat healthy foods. Also, the student center

activities depict that the university is keen on allowing students to explore

their abilities in the sporting arena. This is shown by the availability of

various sporting activities such as swimming, among others. Generally, the primary

emphasis of the video is to show how the university provides the best

facilities that a student needs to excel both in the academic and also in the

sporting arena. The Eastern Michigan University, the video emphasizes its

commitment to accommodate a broad range of cultures by promoting diversity. The

student center resources mainly highlight this. Additionally, the student

center was rated as the best resource center in the country. Further, the video

emphasizes the campus commitment to engage with the community through programs

such as volunteer programs. Finally, the video has emphasized the university’s

excellence as depicted by the various accolades that it has won. Generally, if

one intends to join the university, he or she is assured that they have made

the right choice to join a university that has a proven success record.

Dimension of Organizational Culture

From a university perspective, organizational

culture implies the systematic way students and staff interact and behave among

themselves. The culture is collectively made up of norms, values, and habits.

The dimension of organizational culture at Central Michigan University is

innovation. Students who need opportunities and facilities to create new

services or products should consider joining the university. The university

does not only encourage innovation but gives students time and space to pursue

their endeavors. The approach has resulted in the emergence of exceptional

talents in football, innovations in medicine, engineering, and other disciplines.

On the other hand, the dimension of organizational

culture at Eastern Michigan University is people-oriented. The university

values fairness and supports people’s dignity and rights. The institution

accords it’s a range of resources for its students. One key exhibit is the

availability of the Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) resource

center and office of the multicultural center. Further, from the video,

inclusivity, which is tied to a people-oriented culture, is evident from a large

number of nationalities and cultures from all over the world who have enrolled

at the campus. The “supportive” aspect of the culture is also seen

through the participation of 18 Eastern Michigan University teams in Division

One. The students are also not charged to watch and support their colleagues.

 

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