Part I – Short Answer. (pts given in brackets).
5.
The brain uses the inverse model together with the forward models for control of movements. The inverse model inverts a causal flow by enabling the system to formulate the next motor command without waiting for proprioceptive feedback from the current command. Therefore, with a predetermined desired state, the inverse models generate the motor commands that bring about the state. Neurological evidence suggests that the cerebellum has multiple inverses and forward models and studies from neuropsychological patients with motor control deficits suggesting that the parietal lopes are involved in implementing the models for movement (Gabriel et al., 2018).
6.
An inverse model is needed in the performance of tasks that involves Fitt’s law. It’s essential in facilitating the formulation of next motor commands even though the current controls have not offered the proprioceptive feedback (Gabriel et al., 2018). Fitt’s law shows that there is a linear relationship between the duration and the difficulty of the movement; therefore, the inverse model will help in achieving faster changes that are more accurate and easier.
7.
Visual cortex areas exhibit bi-directional interconnection. This Level of interconnection facilitates an area to send feedforwards to another area higher in the hierarchy and receive feedback from an area also more upper in the hierarchy.
8.
Balasubramaniam and Turvey (Hula Hoop) experiment resulted in a fact that organized motions of the body keep the hoop in stable oscillatory motion parallel to the ground (Gabriel et al., 2018). This experiment found that the hip and waist movements involved in body motion are essential in maintaining hoop oscillations, a state of dynamic equilibrium between the hoop and the torso, slimming waistline, and improving muscular endurance.
Part ii
9.
Normal visual processing
The course of visual processing encompasses relaying signals from the retina to the striate cortex through the lateral geniculate nucleus (Gabriel et al., 2018). The initial robust retinotopic localization is experienced in the visual cortex in such a way that striate occipital lesions lead to restricted deficits to visual field segments. Different areas of the extrastriate cortex are included in the perception of color and motor. Therefore, extrastriate deficits lead to shortcomings in the aspects of vision, like the perception of motion, affecting the full visual field.
10.
Moving objects are perceived and tracked by a series of neurons and their axons that handle all the information from a section of the visual field hierarchically. The motion information involved includes shape, shape, and color. A demarcated set of photoreceptors, other retinal cells, lateral geniculate cells, and cortical cells acts as a serial pathway for information from a block of the visual scene (DiGiovanna, 2015). This information arrives at a “master” cell or group of cells, in a visual association area of the cortex, which connects the current information with memories of previous experiences and makes sense of it.
11.
12.
The gait pattern for a patient with spastic cerebral palsy grounded on sagittal plane kinematics is subdivided into four typical patterns:
Type1
This Hemiplegia has a ‘drop foot’ that is most clearly observed during the gait cycle in the swing phase of the gait as a result of the inability to control the ankle dorsiflexors selectively. It is reasonable since it does not have a calf contracture. It can be managed by a hinged ankle-foot orthosis (AFO) or a leaf spring.
Type 2
This type of Hemiplegia is the most common. It’s observed in the stance phase due to the contracture and spasticity of the gastric-soleus muscles. It has to subdivisions:
- Equinus plus neutral knee and extended hip
- Equinus plus recurvatum knee and extended hip
The impaired function of the ankle dorsiflexor and the anterior tibialis lead to a symbolic variable degree of drop foot (DiGiovanna, 2015). There is a noted pattern of true equinus with a varying ankle in the plantar flexion. This condition of the knee extension is overactive and may lead to the adoption of a state of recurvatum.
This condition can be managed by supplemental casting in the cases of mild contracture. Other patients with this condition will need to nee orthotic support to achieve the ‘drop foot’ tendency.
Type 3
This type of cerebral palsy has impaired ankle dorsiflexion in the swing, a gastric-soleus contracture, and a flexed, ‘stiff knee gait’ due to hamstring co-contraction. This condition can be managed by a hinged or solid AFO (Gabriel et al., 2018).
TYPE 4
THIS Cerebral palsy is characterized by marked proximal involvement, which is unilaterally leading to pronounced symmetry like a pelvic retraction. The sagittal plane has an anterior pelvic tilt, equinus, a flexed hip, and a flexed stiff knee. In the transverse plane, there is internal rotation and in the coronal plane, hip adduction. It can be managed by a hinged AFO, lengthening of the adductors, and external rotation osteotomy of the femur (DiGiovanna, 2015).
13.
The process of recovering from a spinal code injury is usually very long and unpredictable. This is because it is impossible to predict the course of the damage precisely, and hard to locate its exact location, which is crucial in determining the extent of disability expected (DiGiovanna, 2015). Up the spinal cord, the injuries became more severe, with the cervical spinal cord injury being more dangerous. Also, it is hard to predict the course since most spinal cord injuries changes with time with the swelling problems experienced during the first weeks of the injury. However, the doctors can predict the evolution of injuries accurately but not spinal cord injuries trajectories or the recovery journey (DiGiovanna, 2015).
References
Gabriel, Z., Patrick, G., Alan T., Daniel A., Markus, H., John, A.,
Karl, F., Nikolaus, W., Armin, C., & Patrick, F. Progressive neurodegeneration following spinal cord injury: Neurology, 2018; 10.1212/WNL.0000000000005258 DOI: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000005258
DiGiovanna, A. (2015). Human Ageing: Biological Perspectives, 2nd Edn. New York, NY:
McGraw Hill Companies