South Korea`s development after the Korean war to present
South Korea (officially called the Republic of Korea) is a country located in Eastern Asia. The country occupies most of the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Geographically, the Korean peninsula is situated between the Yellow Sea, the Sea of Japan, and the Korea Strait, which demarcates the Sea passage between Japan in the South and South Korea. The county has only one land border which it shares with its neighbor North Korea in the North. South Korea also possesses a maritime border with both Japan and China. The country has a total landmass area of 99,678km2, which is roughly the same size as the state of Pennsylvania in the United States. Besides, the country has a population of approximately about 50.8 million inhabitants, with the capital being Seoul. The official language in the country is Korean.
Since the partition of the Korean peninsula in 1948, South Korea has risen to become one of the most affluent countries. The communist North has, however, slipped into poverty and totalitarianism. The partition saw the invasion of South Korea after which the country United Nations-backed support and left the country in ruins. After the Korean war, the country slipped into authoritarian rule after the period, and it is when the country managed to advance its development profile. The country has now developed into an established country when it comes to sustained development and growth.
The country has managed to achieve remarkable economic success with a growth rate of about 5%, with the economy being a high-income country and a high level of innovation. South Korea has a GDP in excess of $1 trillion dollars and a per capita income of about $20,000. The country`s economy represents about 2% of the world`s economy. According to economic statistics, the country has achieved an enviable level of macroeconomic stability, with the economy being able to absorb the global recession shocks of 2009. Besides, the country`s economy has a current account surplus, with the fiscal balances remaining strong. The economy also has a relatively low debt level, which falls below 40% of the GDP. In the same light, the economy remains driven forward because of its strong performance in the export sector, with the manufacturing industry taking a larger share of national output. However, the country still faced a challenge with the service sector, which has remained weak based on global metrics.
Korea was primarily a backward country pre-colonization, and the country was largely agricultural society, and the country borrowed most of the high culture from neighboring China. South Korea was mostly dependent on China for political legitimization as well as military protection while remaining independent in its internal behavior. Until the period of Japanese colonization, the country has remained an isolated country in the global political stage. The Japanese imposed a diplomatic treaty for South Korea in 1876. After defeating Russia and China in wars between 1895 and 1905, the Japanese assumed predominance in the Korean peninsula. This was followed by 35 years of colonial rule from 1910-1945 in Korea, which can only be described as being strict and brutal. The Japanese attempted to wipe out the identity of Koreans cultural identity by making them be culturally Japanese. However, despite this, the Japanese contributed significantly to the rise of Korea`s industrial development. It was essential to set up industries such as cement, steel, and chemical plants because of the abundant hydroelectric and coal energy sources. As of the time the Japanese colonial rule ended, Korea had developed to be the second most industrialized after Japan in the Asian continent.
The post-colonial period saw Korea face a wave of emerging trends in the world that had a significant impact on the country`s future trajectory. World War II saw the Japanese surrender to the allies, after which the Korean peninsula was divided into two distinct zones with one being the North D.P.R.K (the Democratic people`s Republic of Korea) and the southern (Republic of Korea). The North was occupied by the Soviet Union, and the South was held by the United States till the time a unified, independent government could be formed. However, the cold war between the Soviet Union and the United States and the political and cultural differences between North and South Korea led to a breakdown in negotiations that ultimately resulted in the Korean war. The Korean war ended after a ceasefire was negotiated between the two sides and which saw the independence of the two countries. South Korea made steady economic gains after the period and is now considered one of the biggest and most developed industrial countries. A study of the country`s real domestic product reveals that the country`s GDP increased from about $33 billion as of 1960 to about $73 billion in 1970, and was about $149 billion in 1980. Between 1990 and 2000 (Jain and Amrit 176), the GDP was $342 billion and $620 billion, respectively. Of more importance, the GDP rate per individual grew from $1325 in 1960 to about $13,199 in the year 2000. The massive increase in economic output per individual has had a massive impact on the Korean`s material wealth. Besides, it has contributed to a considerably lower death rate, with South Koreans living over nineteen years more as compared to the former generation.
The economic rise of South Korea has, however, come with one major negative effect, which is that the overreliance on fossil-fuel-based energy sources has seen the country contribute greatly to Climate change. South Korea adopted rapid industrial and urban development. All these development and urbanization has required natural resources such as oil and coal, to provide the necessary energy to power homes, vehicles, industrial complexes, and cities. All this development has led to the country`s carbon footprint, increasing to the present levels. South Korea is now the seventh-largest carbon emitter in the world.
From the analysis, the development project has led to South Korea`s economic, social, and political growth. The development projects led to good change since the country was able to develop politically, economically, and socially. However, the development projects have led to South Korea ranking highly in terms of contributing to climate change. The development projects caused the country to urbanize massively with large industrial complexes that relied on vast quantities of fossil fuels. Hence, South Korea must implement effective policies to mitigate the climate crisis, which will ultimately result in good changes in a fair and equitable manner.
Effects of development projects in South Korea from the pre-colonial era to the present time
South Korea`s development before colonialism period
Korea has a strategic location in the East Asian peninsula, which has been a critical factor that has determined its cultural and political history. The country has featured significantly within the East Asian civilization and has experienced mutual prosperity with her neighbors while also falling prey to their ambitions in other instances. Prior to the Japanese colonization, the country was relatively independent. After the Japanese colonization, the country was divided into the North and South republics. After the liberation, the country encountered the agony of civil war and national division that lasted between 1950 and 1953 and has not ended until modern times (Haggard 871). Over half a century later, the calls for reunification have been a call for amongst all Koreans and have been a significant political issue in both South and North Korea. Despite this, South Korea has seen rapid economic progress that was accompanied by massive patterns of urbanization, democratization, and migration. These factors have radically transformed the country.
Before colonial rule, Korea was a poor and backward country that had been influenced for centuries by its neighbors. The first settlers in the Korean peninsula were literate societies that appear within Chinese records from the time of fourth century BCE. Over-time the competing kingdom and groups in the peninsula unified together to form one Korean national identity. According to Park (156), there existed three kingdoms in the peninsula, which include Paekche in the SouthWest, Silla in the SouthEast, and Koguryo in North. The defeat of the rivals by Silla lead to the ultimate unification of the peninsula in 668 CE (Kang 146). The present boundaries of the Korean peninsula occurred during the Koryo dynasty (918-1392), after which the name Korea is derived. The next dynasty, which is the Choson dynasty (1392-1910), further consolidated the country`s distinct cultural practices as well as national boundaries. The Chosen dynasty held power in Korea, and the country enforced a policy of limited contact with other foreign countries (Kohli 1270). Korea faced devastating invasions from the Japanese in the sixteenth century, and the dynasty enforced a strict period of limited contact with other countries. The dynasty only enforced limited contact with Chinese, which were diplomatic in nature and occurred about three and four times a year. The period of limited contact saw very few Koreans leave the peninsula in the period of the late Choson dynasty, with few foreigners also gaining access to the place (Kohli 1278)). The period saw Korea achieve relative peace and internal stability. From a western perspective, Korea could only be described as being abnormally isolated with Westerners describing it as a ‘hermit kingdom.’ Korea, at the time, was called the Yi state, was embedded in pointless state-class linkages, which causes a functionalized ruling strata that all contributed towards Korea’s powerlessness. Much of the country’s culture was borrowed from neighboring China, which included the use of written languages, Neo-Confucianism, and a political system composed of the ruling elite (Vu). The year 1905 saw the Asian region block faced turmoil related to international affairs, which caused the declaration of Korean protectorate by the Japanese.
Korea has a traditional economy that was ‘oriental’ in nature; it was self-sustaining and self-sufficient. The exchange of goods occurred in the basic economic units, which were the family and village in which the exchange and production of goods could occur (Haggard 870). The traditional Korean economy was agricultural in nature, and rice production was the main economic activity. With very minimal use of commerce, the Koreans made use of the land as their main source of wealth. Hence, at the time, a majority of economic thought was centered around the concept of capital accumulation based on land investments (Kohli 1275). The state-owned all the land and controlled the distribution of land. The state would grant land and would, in turn, receive a land tax to help in the generation of revenue. In addition, Korea`s traditional economy was closed in nature, and foreign trade only occurred via official channels.
South Korea`s development during the Japanese colonial rule
After defeating Russia and China in wars between 1895 and 1905, the Japanese assumed predominance in the Korean peninsula. This was followed by 35 years of colonial rule from 1910-1945 in Korea, which can only be described as being strict and brutal. The main argument presented argues that the Japanese colonial administration played an integral role in helping to shape the country`s political economy, which saw the country evolve towards a path of high-growth development (Vu 89). The Japanese applied a different system of colonialism in Korea as compared to other European powers. The country made use of state power to help and transform the country within a short period of time. Despite, the Japanese colonial administration being described as being largely architectonic and brutal, the colonial rule saw Korea achieve close to four decades of economic growth. The average annual rate of production increased to above three percent, with a high level of industrialization.
Under the rule of the Japanese colonialists, the Korean state was transformed from having inefficient social institutions towards attaining maximum authority that was capable of transforming the country. The Japanese imported the Meiji framework in Korea, where the colonial administration built a political economy that was centralized (Kohli 1279). The administration also engaged in deliberate state interventions that targeted the agricultural and industrial sectors as well as the transformation of the society. The model made use of state power to help foster socioeconomic changes in the country. To ensure the loyalty of Koreans, the Japanese implemented repressive approaches as well as ensuring downward penetration.
The second pattern involved a pattern whereby the state opened up new production alliances with dominant Korean classes, which enabled the state to assume control of the country (Kohli 1281). Besides, the colonial administration also diversified the economy by making critical structural changes. Such changes enabled the country to attain a high steady growth with the uptake of industrialization. The changes saw the country become a heavy exporter of many manufactured products.
The third pattern involved the systematic and repressive control of the lower classes in the country. The state-class configurations helped in the development and evolution of a successful political economy. For instance, the colonial administration in Korea recognized the need to control the lower classes, which comprised of the workers and peasants as an essential component of building a prosperous Korea (Vu 123). The authoritarian and bureaucratic state collaborated with the property owners in the country to help in the formation of a repressive strategy that would see the labor classes controlled. With the lower classes in control, the state could then focus on pursuing a strategy of economic development. The government also held wages way below the productivity grains, which ensured high levels of profits that would ensure growth.
The Japanese, while pursuing their imperial interests in Koreas, also engaged in full policy agenda, which includes the goal of economically transforming Korea. The transformation occurred in two ways in which the state made use of its bureaucratic capacity to directly undertake economic tasks that involved production-styled alliances that could lead to sustained economic change. The colonial government targeted in various capacity building economic activities that would help the transformation of the country. The first was to increase the capacity of the colonial state. It included improving the state`s capacity to collect taxes (Vu, 156). The old system had been very ineffective in extracting taxes from society and especially the landowners. The colonial came in and using their police and civil bureaucracy to help in the collection of taxes. In this format, the colonial administration was able to secure a reliable revenue base while also enhancing control over the agrarian sector since the landowners were involved as ruling partners. While the Korean landowners lost autonomy in the agreement, they were able to secure Western-styled legal property rights and enhanced profits accrued from the land.
The colonial administration overtime undertook numerous economic projects by first investing in infrastructure projects that helped in opening up Korea. The Japanese invested huge sums of capital in infrastructure projects that comprised railways and roads. The government also made serious investments in the primary education of the citizenry.
How the Japanese impacted the agrarian sector in Korea
Following the restructuring of the relationship that existed between the land classes and state, the Japanese introduced a legal code that defined a Western-styled private property code that could help in securing the landed groups in perpetuity. Besides, a legal system allowed foreigners to purchase land in Korea, which could then be used for agricultural purposes. Besides, the Japanese introduced new, improved techniques of cultivating rice, which includes improved fertilizers, seeds, and irrigation techniques (Kohli 1289). The open economy saw most of the production end up in the export market.
The extent of Korea`s industrialization was largely unique and considerable in many aspects. The industrialization efforts occurred in three phases, namely, which begun with the investments in infrastructures such as power and railways. The Japanese capitalist dominated the industrial sector and was engaged in manufacturing, mining as well as other light and small industries. Koreans also had smaller-scale industries that mimicked those of the Japanese. Some of the businesses would rise to become the strong global players of the modern world, such as Samsung and Hyundai.
The bureaucratic and highly authoritative state helped in the construction of a colonial Korea that was a large and efficient economic actor. The government made use of its bureaucracy to directly undertake economic tasks such as building infrastructure, collecting higher taxes, and being more involved in undertaking necessary production. Since the colonial power was highly purposive, they managed to place production as a top priority agenda. Japanese colonial rule came to an end after the conceded defeat in World War II in August 1945.
South Korea`s development during the cold-war
During the Cold War, two development projects competed for supremacy in Korea. The first was the Capitalist market development project, while the second was a socialist industrialization development project. Both projects measured the development index through urbanization, industrialization, and agricultural reform. In Asia, countries such as China and North Korea had become socialists with others, such as South Korea remaining with capitalist ideologies. The Cold war, waged between 1945-1980, was done on economic, political, and propaganda fronts with the use of limited weapons (Kang 140). The Korean war was a significant development during the Cold War as former USSR and the United States embarking on fighting a proxy war in South Korea, a third world country (Kang 130). The conflict arose after North Korea, which was a communist country that invaded South Korea. The United States feared that communism would spread in South Korea, which was one of its major regional allies in Asia. After the war, South Korea protected its capitalist market development project. North Korea had been influenced by soviet culture and politics and fell towards communism. South Korea, backed by the United States, embraced western-style ideologies of capitalism and individualism. The differences saw North Korea backed by the Soviet Union invade South Korea in an attempt to see the unification of the Peninsula (Kang 134). On the other was South Korea backed by the United States, which ultimately led to the Korean war that lasted between 1950 and 1953. The war ended after a truce was established, and Korea divided into two equal territories with a demilitarized zone marking the border. The war led to a massive loss of life with massive physical damage as a result.
The cold war in Korea had significant economic effects. The period in which the war started was a period in which the South Korean economy was struggling due to poor governance and an underdeveloped industrial sector. One of the benefits that resulted from the Korean War was the restructuring of the relationship between South Korea and Japan. After the war, South Korea`s ruler embarked on building ties with Japan, which saw the country waive all their prior claims against Japan. In exchange, Japan would send Millions of Dollars in Foreign aid, foreign direct investment, and technology transfers (Jain and Dasgupta 175). The aid saw helped South Korea modernize and grow their industrial base. Another benefit of the Korean war was the creation of South Korea, which was a stable country that set out to achieve economic success through effective policies targeting the economy. Such policies included export tariffs and low tax laws as well as encouraging foreign direct investment. The government also invested in education.
South Korea`s development after the Korean war to present
The government embraced lasting nationalism that was promoted as a national ideology. The government would later use nationalism as the base to pursue economic programs starting from the 1960s. The government worked to support and maintain strong nationalism. The government placed a huge emphasis on the industrializing the economy in a move that would see the country become a modern affluent society (Kohli 1270). The government placed emphasis on an export-based economy derived from Korean manufactured goods. The government would announce this as a national goal. For instance, in 1973, the government highlighted that they had a national objective of attaining a per capita income of about a thousand dollars, with the exports standing at $10 billion as of 1981. The government would promote this with national goals such as attaining growth of ten percent.
The government of South Korea came up with a program called the five-year economic plans which targeted specific sectors of the economy in a bid to boost development. The first batch was implemented between 1962 to 1966, which involved securing the country`s energy supplies, expansion of basic infrastructure, and improvements in the balance of payments (Kohli 1290). The second batch was implanted between 1967 and 1971 and aimed at attaining high food sufficiency, improved technology, and population control, and family control. The third plan targeted the promotion of chemical and heavy industries and the improvement of technology. The fourth plan (1978-1982) consolidated a plan to improve self-sufficient in capital investments, and increase investment in technology and science, and increase the country`s competitiveness in the international market (Kohli 1290). The fifth plan (1982-1986) was centered on the control of inflation and overcoming of energy constraints. The sixth plan ratified between 1987 and 1991 was meant to stabilize inflation while offering balanced rural and regional development.
To fund the huge economic and infrastructure projects, the government acquired big injections of foreign aid that came from Japan and the United States. It is estimated that the country received over sixty billion dollars in loans and grants between 1946 and 1978. Under the leadership of President Park, the state also focussed on building massive economic champions or business conglomerates (chaebols). The strategy laid the foundation for the formation of successful South Korean brands that had world dominance, such as LG and Samsung. The strategy saw the country register impressive GDP growth of 8.5%, with the manufacturing industry registering an impressive growth of 17% on average as from 1960 (Haggard et al. 870). The unemployment rate fell from a rate of 8.1% to 4.4% in the year 1970. The country made wise use of labor, which was in abundance as well as financial capital that was initially scarce and had been borrowed. The economic growth led the country towards a path of economic transformation that had occurred in other countries. Since the launch of the economic reforms and five-year developmental plans, the country`s per-capita income stood at 87 dollars and, as for 2012, had increased that income to USD 20000 for its 50 million population (Haggard et al. 871). Korea was the fifth-largest exporter and seventh-largest importer and had accumulated foreign reserves of about 369.9 billion dollars and ranked position 13 in the human development index. We can sum up that the Korean model of economic development focussed on compressed economic growth as well as active social mobilization to effect change.
Besides the role of government, Confucianism also played a massive role in the economic progress of Korea with the traditional values such as loyalty, respect for authority, and significance of diligence and education being highlighted. The values were then transferred to the industrial sector. For instance, family loyalty became company loyalty with diligence promoted for self-cultivation being converted in similar metrics. Other Confucian values such as solidarity, cooperation between employees, and harmony were also adopted in the companies.
Conclusion
Since independence, South Korea has experienced rapid economic expansion, and economic growth has seen the standards of livings of Koreans improve significantly. However, despite this growth and economic development, South Korea has been using more resources than nature can provide. The increased demand for natural resources such as oil has seen the planets ecological assets face mounting pressure with the environment, also experiencing the ravaging effects of climate change. According to Kim (458), it is estimated that South Korea per capita carbon dioxide emission stood at 11.5 metric tonnes. The rapid increase in population and increase in population have significantly contributed to the increased release of greenhouse gases and pollutants. The climate change effects have only accelerated ever since South Korea adopted rapid industrial and urban development. All these development and urbanization has required natural resources such as oil and coal, to provide the necessary energy to power homes, vehicles, industrial complexes, and cities. All this development has led to the country`s carbon footprint, increasing to the present levels.
In the wake of these changes, the South Korean government has effected several changes that will see the country adapt to climate change. The government implemented a raft of measures that will reduce greenhouse emissions which will it move closer to becoming a low-carbon based nation. President Lee declared that the country`s development philosophy would be low-carbon green growth, which would see the country adopt a National strategy for green growth (Chung and Eun 140). The strategy would see the country promote eco-friendly growth, the enhancement of people`s life quality, and contribution towards international efforts in the fight against climate change. In the five-year plan, the government aims to implement a strategy of focusing on green growth projects and programs with investments in the area of green technology research. The country passed a 30.7 billion stimulus package that would support the ambition to go green. It includes investments in energy-efficient buildings, renewable energy, and the expansion of mass transport systems such as railways.