THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT: JOHN LOCKE
Introduction: the Enlightenment.
Enlightenment is the separation of a person’s mind and will from a self-imposed nonage[1], the willingness of an individual to take back the freedom of using their mind without the guidance of another person. The failure to use one’s mind and understanding without the direction of a designated caretaker because of indecision, cowardice, or laziness is the ultimate expression of self-imposed nonage[2]. The infamous eighteenth-century movement, the Enlightenment, is one of the most significant examples of humankind’s redemption from a form of nonage; the absolute rule of monarchies. The rule of monarchs in old Europe had a distinct feature. Subjects who would submit to the supreme rule and guardianship of monarchs. Subjects did not have the right to publicly and freely share their ideas and liberty without the approval of their sovereign. The Enlightenment marked the dawn of a new age.
The movement was an intellectual endeavor that valued reason and individualism over tradition and challenged humankind to dare to know (Sapere Aude)[3]. Despite the diverse meaning, the word enlightenment took in different societies in Europe[4], the common feature was the free spread of knowledge, ideas, and the sovereignty of reason. The works of thinkers like Isaac Newton, Rene Descartes, Francis Bacon, and John Locke formed the foundation of the golden age of enlightenment during the eighteenth century. Arguably, the most influential of all the classical philosophers is John Locke. His theories on political philosophy and natural rights influenced the Enlightenment movement and paved the way for the liberty and freedom for humankind from religious and political nonage.
John Locke, famously known as the father of liberalism[5], presented theories that established the conception and expression of liberty that gives people the right to choose their way of life, and the freedom to oppose authority exercised against their will[6]. Locke’s concept of liberty and freedom was so influential it was reflected in the American constitution[7]. His political philosophy and theory on natural rights are his most outstanding works. The former is a well-study area that receives a lot of attention from scholars, while the later often receives courtesy consideration despite its immense importance in classical enlightenment philosophy.
John Locke’s Theory on Natural Rights
The classical thinkers of enlightenment philosophy did not extensively cover the concept of natural rights in their works. The two treatises of government by John Locke contain the most well put and thorough coverage of the idea despite its ambiguous and confusing structure[8]. Surprisingly, despite its uniqueness, John Locke’s conception of natural rights has received little attention compared to his political philosophy. Yet the latter is rooted in the theory of rights. Perhaps the neglect of Locke’s theory of natural rights can be attributed to the assumption that his concept does not stand on its merit. Instead is an extension of his philosophy on natural law or can be sufficiently understood by studying his work on property rights. Nevertheless, Locke’s natural rights theory is a fully formed classical concept that not only stands on its own but forms the basis for other Lockean theories.
Locke wrote the ‘Second Treatise of Government’ during the Glorious Revolution in England, which resulted at the end of King James II’s rule. Locke wrote of the equality of all men, natural law, and inalienable natural rights. The bold assertion that all men are made equal is a direct denial of the idea that monarchs are born with the inherent authority and power to rule above their subjects. Every man, ruler, or subject has certain rights that cannot be taken from them or given to them since they are natural and God-given. Locke’s ideas on the natural human right to life, liberty and property forms the bulk of his theory on natural rights, “no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions…[9]”
The right to life
According to Locke, the most basic natural law, the preservation of humankind, is the root of the right to life. The conservation of humankind is the ultimate law in nature; therefore, man has a right and duty to preserve their life[10]. Locke argues that this right has a moral rather than a physical standing. He wrote against Hobbes who asserted that there are no natural rights; instead, man protects his life at all costs[11]. Hobbes’s argument places physical power as the source of the right to life. One has a right to life if they have the might to defend it. Locke wrote against Hobbes assertion; he stated that the right to life is natural and God-given, “…for men being the workmanship of one omnipotent and infinitely wise maker; all the servants of one sovereign Master sent into this world by his order and about his business; they are his property, whose workmanship they are made to last during his, not another’s pleasure.”[12] Since the right to life is God-given, every man has equal entitlement; therefore, the right has to be grounded in reason rather than in might.
The Right to Liberty
Locke’s ideas on the inalienable right to liberty made him the father of liberalism. Locke approached liberty in two ways, its state in nature and civil society. In his Treatise, Locke states, “The natural liberty of man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man, but to have only the law of nature for his rule.”[13] This approach to liberty is entirely rooted in the nature of man and has two limitations. The first is that man “has not liberty to destroy himself, or so much as any creature in his possession.”[14] The second is that man cannot take the life, liberty, health, or property of his fellow man[15]. Liberty in nature, gives the freedom to make choices that direct their lives as long as they do not interfere with other people’s right to liberty. A person’s natural right to liberty ends where the other person’s right begins.
The second approach in Locke’s Treatise is liberty in society. Liberty in civil society is like in nature, except it has limitations in the established law of the society. “The liberty of man in society is to be under no other legislative power than that established by consent in the commonwealth, nor under any will, or restraint of any law, but what the legislative shall enact according to the trust put in it.”[16] In other words, man has the right to freely do as he pleases; unless his actions are limited by laws enacted by his society governing body.
The right to property
Locke’s theory of natural rights also features the right to private property. Locke’s doctrine on private property answers two fundamental questions concerning man’s relation to property. Does man’s right to over private property exist? And how does each individual get domain over private property? Locke states that man has a right to property since he has dominion granted by God who “makes man in his image after his likeness, makes him an intellectual creature, and so capable of dominion.”[17] If a man has the divine right to property in common, then it stands to reason that the right flows to the individual level hence his right to what is naturally needed to preserve life. Furthermore, chapter five of Locke’s Treatise on Civil Government states that man can acquire private domain over property through inheritance[18] and conquest in an unjust war[19]. Additionally, the right to property is a basis of political power. A man acquires political power over another through a social contract where the later contractually and voluntarily forfeits specific rights to the former[20]. However, the social contract does grant absolute power; it is only limited to the rights which are voluntarily included in the contract.
Critique of John Locke’s Theory on Natural Rights
Despite the impact his theory of natural rights has had in history, Locke did not develop fully develop his concept. Locke’s works provide the most comprehensive coverage of natural rights among the classical philosophers; however, the doctrine was not fully explained on paper. Perhaps, Locke was content with assumptions prevalent at his time and therefore obvious to his mind, and failed to include them in his work. For instance, Locke provides the basis for an argument for natural rights based on the divine obligation by stating man is “…sent into the world by his order and about his business…[21]” However, he does not develop the idea or give arguments to support his statement. Furthermore, Locke seems to be more focused on particular rights than in establishing equality and rights as a whole[22]
Conclusion
Locke’s theory of natural rights as written in his Treatise was key in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England[23]. Locke’s work illuminated the revolution’s awakening and denial of King James II’s absolute rule. The same happened a hundred years later, when the Declaration of Independence by the colonies embodied Locke’s theory in its rebellion against the rule of King Gorge. In both instances, people were breaking away from nonage by revolting against the tyranny of a monarch. In the modern world, Locke’s theory of natural rights still holds firm in modern liberal constitutionalism[24]. Natural rights and equality are still guarded because their relation to the divine and foundation in reason give a comprehensive idea of man’s place in the world[25]. The Declaration of Independence still embodies the ideal of every man and woman being equal and having freedom and liberty. Although the Declaration of independence is not a legally binding document, the American people still live by its values and assertions.
[1] Kent, John. “the Enlightenment.” Companion encyclopedia of theology (1995): 251.
[2] Ibid 2.
[3] Outram, Dorinda. The enlightenment. Vol. 58. Cambridge University Press, 2019.
[4] Ibid, 1.
[5]Stanton, Timothy. “John Locke and the fable of liberalism.” The Historical Journal 61, no. 3 (2018): 597-622.
[6] Ibid 3
[7] Hill, John Lawrence. “The Father of Modern Constitutional Liberalism.” Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 27, (2018): 431.
[8] Simmons, A. John. The Lockean theory of rights. Princeton University Press, 1994.
[9] Hurtubise, Mark Francis. “Philosophy of Natural Rights According to John Locke.” (1952).
[10] Ibid,43
[11] Ibid, 39
[12] Ibid, 40
[13] Ibid, 50.
[14] Ibid, 50.
[15] Ibid, 50.
[16] Ibid, 50.
[17] Ibid, 54
[18] Ibid, 57
[19] Ibid, 62.
[20] Hurtubise, (1952), 58
[21] Ibid, 44.
[22] Simmons (1994), 73
[23] Hurtubise, (1952),51
[24] Waldron, Jeremy. “13 John Locke.” Political Thinkers: From Socrates to the Present (2017): 231.
[25] Ibid, 184