The War of 1812 essay

The War of 1812 essay

The War of 1812

The War of 1812 represents the first formally declared war by the U.S. As its name suggests, the conflict started in 1812 and was fought by the U.S. and Britain. To date, it is one of the most contentious topics in global history because each participant has their version of events, including the causes, outcomes, and impacts of the war. It is, therefore, worthwhile reexamining the conflict to synthesize its accounts from multiple sources to determine what really prompted the war, how it came to an end, as well as how it impacted the various participants. The analysis indicates that the War of 1812 was prompted by Britain’s trade restrictions, the arbitrary impressment of U.S. citizens by the Royal Navy, British support for the insurgent American Indians, and a possible imperialist expansion motive on the part of the U.S.

The Causes

Trade Restrictions. The trade restrictions by Britain were a major cause of the War of 1812. At that time, Britain was warring with France in the Napoleonic Wars (Taylor 43). Britain, therefore, prohibited American merchants from trading with France, hoping to destabilize France and boost Britain’s chances of winning the ongoing Napoleonic Wars (“War of 1812). A series of Orders-in-Council edicts issued by Britain mandated American ships to dock at various ports in Britain for inspection before they proceed to French harbors (Hickey 1). Americans were aggrieved by these subjective actions by the Britons and contested them as illegal under the international law, arguing that Britain was violating U.S. maritime rights (“Brief Overview”). Additionally, the U.S. felt that it was being pulled into a war in which it had no interest in; it just wanted to trade with any nation that was willing to, including both France and Britain. In fact, some Americans believed that the British were simply jealous of America’s commercial prosperity in the Atlantic (Tucker 4). They believed that while it may be true that Britain imposed the embargo to handicap France, the policies were mostly aimed at preserving Britain’s commercial and military supremacy across the Atlantic. Accordingly, both the U.S. and Britain implemented a series of trade and commerce policies aimed at counteracting each other’s moves (Hickey 162). Ultimately, Britain reversed the restrictions, permitting American merchants to sell directly to the French market. However, by the time the communication of this reversal reached the U.S., Congress had already declared war against Britain. Restrictions on neutral commerce by Britain, therefore, thawed the commercial and political relationship between the two countries, thereby prompting the onset of the War of 1812.

Impressment. Another underlying factor that instigated the War was the arbitrary impressment of U.S citizens by the Royal Navy. The British army raided American merchant ships and seized American and British sailors and conscripted them into the Royal Navy (“War of 1812”). Although the Royal Navy was considered to be the most powerful in the world at that time, it was significantly understaffed (“Brief Overview”). Decades of fighting with the French had significantly depleted the Royal Navy. Some soldiers had been killed during the battles while many others, tired of the incessant armed conflicts, had flee to the U.S. (Taylor 47). The impressment policy was, therefore, meant to reclaim the British subjects only. However, that was hardly the case. In most instances, the Royal Navy would seize even American citizens, insisting that they were still Britons by British law even if they had moved to the U.S. (Heidler and Heidler). Since there was no official citizenship documents at the time, many Americans suffered in the hands of the Royal Navy. Later on, the U.S started issuing identification documents. However, the Royal Navy still treated the identification papers with scorn, believing that it was a ploy by the American government to protect the large number of British deserters, which the Royal Navy needed to continue fighting the Napoleonic Wars (Taylor 58). The continued attacks by the Royal Navy on the American merchant ships for soldiers, therefore, violated American rights and triggered the onset of the War of 1812.

Indian Insurgence. An additional factor that prompted the war is Britain’s sustenance of American Indians’ insurgence. The U.S. government at the time took issues with Britain for supplying guns and other armaments to the Native Indians who were fighting the American settlers (Heidler and Heidler). These internal armed resistance led by Tecumseh and other native Indian leaders impeded westward expansion efforts by the settlers, which infuriated the U.S. government (Hickey 23). Britain helped the American Indians to fight the American settlers in the hope that a win for the Indians would establish a barrier state between the western parts of the U.S. and Canada (Hickey 24; “War of 1812”). Britain perceived the northwest expansion by American settlers as an existential threat to Canada and other British interests in the region. Britain’s meddling in U.S. internal affairs by supporting native Indians, therefore, infuriated American settlers and further incentivized the U.S. to go to war with Britain.

National Honor. The last major reason why the U.S. fought Britain in 1812 was to protect national honor. Some historians assert that the U.S. opted to go to war with Britain to protest the treatment it was being accorded by the latter (Tucker 3). The humiliating attacks by Royal Navy ship on USS Chesapeake in 1807 is particularly identified as a decisive event (Heidler and Heidler). From then on, many Americans implored their government to declare war against Britain to protect America’s reputation in the international community. This viewpoint is, however, highly divisive. Some historians do not think that the U.S. went to war with Britain merely to protect its honor. Others suggest that, in fact, the U.S. appropriated the War of 1812 to further its expansionist agenda (Heidler and Heidler). It was an opportunity for the U.S. to annex Canada, an area it had, for long, set its sight on. Federalists accused war advocates of furthering imperialism under the pretext of protecting American maritime rights and honor (“War of 1812”). While it is difficult to determine with certainty whether a probable annexure of Canada was part of the war objectives, it appears that it was not since the U.S. did not take the sections of Canada that it had in control when the war ended. The areas that the U.S. wanted to incorporate into the Union, including Florida, were eventually seized from Spain and incorporated into the Union. Since the U.S. did not make an explicit attempt to annex Canada, it is plausible that no such intentions existed in the first place. Therefore, the U.S. may also have gone to war to protect its reputation.

The Ending and Impact

The War of 1812 came to an end after the two warring parties agreed to an armistice. In 1815, the two countries ratified the Treaty of Ghent in modern Belgium after Britain failed in its assault on Baltimore (Heidler and Heidler). During the negotiations, the U.S., on the one hand, relinquished its demands to end impressment. However, Britain was only permitted to seize British deserters, not American citizens (“Brief Overview”). Britain, on the other hand, gave up its efforts to alter the Canadian border in its favor and also abandoned efforts to create an Indian barrier state (Hickey 284). Both nations felt that the war was needless and it, therefore, ended amicably.

One of the core impacts of the War of 1812 is that it broke Indian’s resistance to American expansion. As indicated in a preceding section, the native Indians felt reinvigorated when they started receiving support from Britain (“War of 1812”). For a few years, they mounted a strong resistance against American settlers who wanted to further expand the Union. Dwindling support from the British soldiers and the subsequent annihilation of Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama settled the debate on who should have the right of way (Heidler and Heidler). With no further assistance from the British, American Indians ceded most of their lands to the U.S. government (Tucker 4). It was a turning point for the Indians in their quest for self-governance. The war, therefore, enabled the U.S. to further its expansion objectives.

Another significance of the War of 1812 is that it asserted United States’ reputation in the global arena. Although the U.S. did not defeat Britain per se, it had fought valiantly against arguably the best military force in the world at the time (“Brief Overview”). The outcome of the war earned the U.S. considerable respect across the world. In fact, it led to the voluntary return of Florida by Spain who recognized America’s new war capabilities. Internally, the outcomes of the war boosted national mood and sense of self-confidence (“War of 1812”). The U.S. had emerged from the war as a bona fide world superpower, ushering in the so-called ‘Era of Good Feelings.’ The growing reputation also encouraged the spirit of expansionism, which would shape America’s approach to international relations for the better part of the 19th century (Heidler and Heidler). The outcome of the war, therefore, underlined the superiority of the U.S. as one of the global superpowers.

Lastly, the War of 1812 also marked the demise of the Federalist Party. The party promoted anti-war rhetoric throughout the war and was, therefore, accused of being unpatriotic (Taylor 76). Since the majority of the Federalist Party members believed that the U.S. had gone to war with Britain to help Napoleon, they opposed the war by refusing to pay taxes as well as to be conscripted to fight in it. In fact, the Party initiated constitutional reforms to limit the power of Congress to wage war and even threatened to secede if they do not get their way (Hickey 202). The euphoria that engulfed the U.S. over the war’s end prompted many Americans to brand the Federalists as traitors. The ensuing stigma from its antiwar stance, therefore, led to the disappearance of the Federalist Party from national politics.

The War of 1812 was instigated by an intricate interaction of various factors that prompted the U.S. to declare war against Britain. First, Britain’s trade restrictions on neutral commerce infringed American merchants’ rights to participate in free trade under international law. Second, the Royal Navy’s impressment of American citizens overstepped their mandate, which was to recover British deserters. Third, the British Empire’s support for American Indians hampered America’s expansion efforts. Finally, the arbitrary violation of the U.S. sovereignty forced the U.S. to fight for its honor and reputation. The war destroyed the resistance by American Indians. It also asserted the U.S. status as a global superpower. Lastly, it also led to the demise of the Federalist Party, which was perceived as unpatriotic. While the War of 1812 is nothing but a footnote to most historians, it represents a major turning point in the U.S. history as it launched the U.S. into the center of global political arena, a position it has not relinquished since.