Napoleonic Wars:
The effect of Napoleonic wars on Latin America Independence.
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Spain colonized the Americas to extract gold and silver that would stimulate the Spanish economy. Additionally, Spain sort of converting Native Americans to Christianity. After thirty years under Spain’s colonial rule, Latin American territory began the journey to achieve independence from the colonizers. The history of Latin America’s independence connects to Napoleonic wars against other European countries. Napoleonic wars were a collection of disputes between France and other European nations under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte, popularly referred to as Napoleon 1. The wars began after the French Revolution in 1799. During the Napoleonic wars, the French dominated a significant part of territories in Europe; Napoleon conquered European coalitions to expand his empire. The five conflicts leading to the war include; the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh coalitions in Europe. The implications of the war not only affected Europe but also other parts of the world. Napoleon’s wars against Portugal and Spain led to a series of events in their colonies in Latin America, which eventually resulted in the independence of these colonies.
The wars of independence in Latin America took place toward the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th; external factors were a major impact on initiating independence. One of the first events leading to Latin America’s independence began when Napoleon’s military marched to Spain to seeking a collaboration to conquer Portugal. The brief alliance between Spain and France in 1795, caused a political and economic imbalance, distancing the Iberian countries from their colonies. When Spain sided with France, it put itself against England, which dominated the sea, therefore cutting communication between Spain and its American colonies. The Spaniard colonists did not have full control of trade; this allowed Spanish Americans to engage in legal trade with neutral countries such as the United States and other colonies. However, Napoleon also invaded Spain as well as Portugal, leading to the Peninsular War. The Peninsula war, also referred to as the “Spanish War of Independence is one of the conflicts of taking control of the Iberian Peninsula. The Peninsular War included the British fighting against the French to liberate Spain and Portugal. Ironically, Spain was struggling to fight for its independence when still taking charge of its colonies in Latin America.
The events occurring in Europe in the early 1900s created a division between Spain and its colonies. Charles IV allowed Napoleon troops to pass through the Spanish territory and invade Portugal. The effect of the Portugal invasion by Napoleon was the Portuguese leader, Prince Regent John, fleeing to Brazil using British ships. Prince Regent set an administrative center for his empire in Brazil. Napoleon Bonaparte acted by removing Bourbon King Ferdinand VII from power and replaced him with his brother Joseph Bonaparte. Ferdinand VII and his father were held prisoners for five years from 1808-1813, causing a power confusion in Spain. The removal of the legitimate King resulted in a series of mixed reactions in Spain; senior officers in the Spanish military sustained their allegiance to the Crown, accepting the Bonaparte rule while middle-class citizens expressed resistance towards the leadership. Individuals against the French occupation in Spain revolted, but a significant number died resisting French rule. However, the “juntas” refused to acknowledge the French King, claiming that power to return to the Province. Several Juntas emerged to gain control of Spanish America in the absence of the King. The Napoleonic invasion of Spanish territory catalyzed the struggle for independence for Latin America.
The overall effect of the Peninsular War was initiating conflict in Spanish America because of the political instability in the Spanish monarchy. The Bourbon monarchy under the French rule in Spain catalyzed Latin America’s independence by introducing reforms that created strained relationships between the rulers in Spain mainland and the Creoles in the colonies. The “Creoles” in America refer to a group of individuals born in America but of Spanish parentage. The Bourbon policies initiated included; fully controlling transatlantic trade, curb illegal trade, and establish firm administrative control in its colonies. The aim of incorporating these policies in their rule was to increase tax collection for the Crown and reduce illegal trade and the number of foreign merchants. However, the Creoles felt that the policies imposed by the Bourbon were an attack on their power, wealth, and social status. The Crown’s new directive on controlling trade encouraged the Creoles to desire economic liberation. A significant number of Creoles were making large profits from the loosened trade regulations, and did not support the new trade policies; however, the Bourbons could not grant free trade. The newly introduced policies caused American- born Spaniards to react angrily because the Crown preferred to appoint peninsulas in administrative positions. The Creoles felt t like a colonized nation instead of partners leading to the creation of the “Enlightenment.”
The “Enlightenment,” also referred to as the “Age of Reason,” was a period in time between the 18th and 19th Centuries when ideas of Reason, Science, and individualism emerged from European intellectuals. The ideas demeaned monarchy Church authority, paving the way to political revolutions. Other ideas of the movement included liberty and progress. The ideas spread from Europe to the world through publications such as The Encyclopedia, published in the mid18th century. The Enlightenment inspired some of the Creoles to adapt some ideas and lead independent movements in Latin America. The influence of Enlightenment ideologies amongst the educated elite fostered a questioning attitude toward institutions of authority and traditional forms of power. It is critical to note that before the reforms initiated by the Bourbons, the Spanish and Portuguese regimes prohibited the public from carrying out any political and policy-making discussions. However, the new Bourbon reforms created loopholes through which books containing enlightenment ideas made way to Spanish colonies. It is also during the enlightenment period that news of the French and American revolutions spread to Spanish colonies. Additionally, the reforms initiated smuggling books in colonies leading to an informed and active population in the public space.
The military and diplomatic issues in Europe encouraged the Creoles to support independence movements in Latin America fully. In 1810, a parliament named “Cortes” emerged to represent Spain and Spaniards in America. After two years of operations, the parliament created a constitution stating that Spanish Americans were members of the Kingdom and should not colonies. However, the Creoles did not have equal representation in the parliament, and Cortes could not agree to free trade to Spanish Americans. Since Spanish Americans already had a taste of freedom during the division from the mother country, they did not agree to less power. In 1814, Ferdinand returned to the throne intending to re-establish Spanish rule in its colonies through military force in Spanish American territories instead of embracing compromise and reforms. Ferdinand’s decision to use force pushed the Creoles to independence. In 1820, Spaniard troops revolted against his orders forcing him to embrace liberal options.
Latin American Independence took place in the years 1808-1826. When Napoleon took the Spanish ruler into hostage, the Creoles and Peninsulas wanted to take control of the Spanish colonies. It is during the time of Spain’s power crisis that Juntas took control of Ferdinand’s name. The Peninsular Spaniards took charge of Mexico City and Montevideo. On the other hand, the Creoles took control of Santiago, Bogota, and Caracas. By 1810, a large number of territories began establishing self-government. The following ten years involved Spanish Americans fighting through independence. Prince Regent remained in Brazil and declared Brazil independent after appointing himself as emperor. Spanish lost three colonies by the end of the 1800s. Santo Domingo and the Republic of Spanish Haiti got independence in 1821. The United States and the British Empire remained neutral during the struggle for Latin independence to achieve political influence and trade without dealing with the Spanish monopoly. After the Mexican War of Independence for over a decade, parts of Mexico and other parts of Central America after the coalition of “Agustine de Iturbide” and “Army of the Three Guarantees.”
The Napoleonic wars had a significant impact on Latin America’s journey to independence. Napoleon Bonaparte, a French military General, was key during the French revolution; he was a military genius in employing war techniques. Napoleon is responsible for Napoleonic wars staged in Europe. The wars were a series of conflicts arising from European alliances. Napoleonic wars affected not only Europe but also other parts of the world, economically, socially, and politically. One of the major impacts of the war is initiating Latin America independence from Spain and Portugal. In an attempt to conquer the Portuguese territory, Napoleon liaised with Spain to march through their territory and conquer the Portuguese. However, Portugal’s ruler escaped to Brazil, leading Napoleon to take control of Spain. Napoleon imprisoned Ferdinand VII together with his father, creating a political crisis in Spain. Some of the officials submitted to the new leadership claiming their allegiance to the Crown. However, Spain could no longer communicate with the Spanish colonies, leading to the start of liberation. Another critical factor that eventually led to Spanish Americans in support of Latin America Independence was “The Enlightenment.” It is during this period that ideas of liberation, reason, and individualism spread from Europe to the world, encouraging the Creoles to initiate independence in Latin American countries. Eventually, the Spain political crises caused by Napoleonic wars gave the Creoles a taste of freedom that was worth fighting for, leading to the independence of Latin America from 1808 to 1826.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Connelly, Owen. 2006. The Wars Of The French Revolution And Napoleón, 1972-1815. London: Routledge.
Secondary sources
Davidson, Denise, Christine Haynes, and Jennifer Heuer. 2016. Icle Special Issue Of The Journal Of Military History “Ending War: Revisiting The Aftermath Of The Napoleonic Wars.” Ebook. Lexington: The Journal of Military History. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292844085_Special_Issue_of_The_Journal_of_Military_History_Ending_War_Revisiting_the_Aftermath_of_the_Napoleonic_Wars’.
Lentz, Katherine A. “Enlightenment, Latin America, Age of Revolutions, Spanish America, Brazil.” (2017).
Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Vol. 58. Cambridge University Press, 2019.
“History Of Latin America – Capitalism And Social Transitions.” 2020. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America/Capitalism-and-social-transitions.
Whitaker, Arthur P. “The Enlightenment in Spanish America.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 102, no. 6 (1958): 555-59. Accessed April 30, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/985566.