Employee Work engagement

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The unstable economic climate within which organizations are expected to function is characterized by factors such as globalization, unpredictable markets, downsizing, critical skills shortages, restructuring and so forth (Izak, 2012; Mafini, Dhurup, & Surujlal, 2013). This causes disengagement in the workplace and has been the basis for concern in the business world. Estimates and surveys suggest that more than 70% of employees are either passively or actively disengaged (A. Adkins, 2016; Wilson, 2014) costing companies in the United States US$450 to US$550 billion annually (Baker, 2014). Employee disengagement is likely to lead to adverse effects such as diminished employee morale and productivity (Prencipe, 2001; Tritch, 2001), enhanced employee turnover, workplace accidents (Frank, Finnegan, & Taylor, 2004; Klie, 2014) and major financial losses (Brim, 2002; Gopal, 2006).

To address the issue of employees’ engagement, researchers (Aquino, Lewis, & Bradfield, 1999; Colbert, Mount, Harter, Witt, & Barrick, 2004; Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Laschinger & Finegan, 2005; Laschinger & Leiter, 2006; Salanova, Agut, & Peiró, 2005; W. B. Schaufeli & Bakker, 2010) have started to investigate more distal predictors of work engagement – those that may predict job and can indirectly influence engagement (Alfes, Shantz, Truss, & Soane, 2013; Holman & Axtell, 2016). As of employee’s strong dedication towards their job and work activities, engaged workers/employees show superior in-role task performance (Christian, Garza, & Slaughter, 2011) leading to improved organizational financial outcomes (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009). In addition, more than a few studies suggest that to improve employees work engagement leadership plays a key role (Breevaart et al., 2014; Tims, Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, 2011; Tuckey, Bakker, & Dollard, 2012). Effective leadership can harness openness towards new experiences, creativity, innovation, improvement, advancement and entrepreneurship (Costa, Passos, & Bakker, 2015; Gawke, Gorgievski, & Bakker, 2017; Orth & Volmer, 2017; Tims, Bakker, Derks, & Van Rhenen, 2013). Indeed, it is notable that Individuals who are more engaged in their jobs are more original in their ideas and are likely to put extra efforts, so much so, they are more tactical and innovative (Orth & Volmer, 2017). In general, work engagement is viewed as managing discretionary effort in which employees act in a way that furthers or improves their organization’s interests (Bakker, Emmerik, & Euwema, 2006; Costa et al., 2015; Gutermann, Lehmann‐Willenbrock, Boer, Born, & Voelpel, 2017; Tims et al., 2013; van Mierlo & Bakker, 2018).

As highlighted formerly, the changing business environment affects the overall understanding, motivation, commitment and well-being of employees (Duchon & Plowman, 2005; Fry, 2003; Hughes & Rog, 2008; Mitroff & Denton, 1999; Pawar, 2009). Certainly, in the fast-changing business environment, the overall fragmented work lives (where professional life is distinct from personal life) has a major negative influence, as it weakens one’s sense of fullness and integration. (Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003; Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010; Van Tonder & Ramdass, 2009; Fred O Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009). In fact, it is thickly argued that it is possible to redeem manpower but it is difficult (insurmountable) to procure employees’ minds, souls, and hearts. And in context to the same, many organizations are interested in creating a spiritual work environment that can engage the hearts and minds of their employees (Al Kilani, 2010; Garcia‐Zamor, 2003; Meyer & Gagne, 2008; Milliman, Gatling, & Bradley-Geist, 2017; Murray & Evers, 2011; Pfeffer, 2010). An organization’s spirituality is reflected through spiritual value that is part of the organization’s climate and culture, manifested within employees’ attitudes and behaviour, decision-making, and resource allocation (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Dhiman & Marques, 2010; Kolodinsky, Giacalone, & Jurkiewicz, 2008; Milliman et al., 2017; Ng & Feldman, 2015; Pawar, 2008).

Given the importance of employee engagement, a key concern for organizations is how to promote the engagement of employees through leadership and especially ethical leadership (Alfes et al., 2013; Bakker & Bal, 2010; Benefiel, Fry, & Geigle, 2014; Caulfield Jay & Senger, 2017; Heifetz, Grashow, & Linsky, 2009; Alan M. Saks, 2011; Yammarino, Salas, Serban, Shirreffs, & Shuffler, 2012). Ethical leadership is likely to have a significant influence on the overall relationship between the leader and the follower (Bellingham, 2003). Ethical leadership leads to a strong sway on organizational and top-management effectiveness, follower performance and job satisfaction (Eisenbeiß & Giessner, 2012). In addition to the effects of ethical leadership on followers, existing evidence also indicates that ethical leadership has implications for a broader set of employees’ attitudes and behaviours (Chen & Hou, 2016; Ng & Feldman, 2015). However, with all said there is still a need to understand this phenomenon as past studies still lack pragmatic grind in order to fully understand employee work engagement (R. A. Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003b; Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2009; Rego & Pina e Cunha, 2008; C. S. Rigby & Ryan, 2018). In addition, the problem of workplace engagement still prevails and is a key area of interest for academicians and practitioners (Javed, Amjad, Faqeer-Ul-Ummi, & Bukhari, 2014; R. Kumar, Ramendran, & Yacob, 2012; Majeed, Jamshed, & Mustamil, 2018; Nasir & Bashir, 2012).

In an attempt to bridge the existent gap in literature, this study will explore the role of Leaders ethical values that might play in shaping employees engagement in the presence of workplace spirituality. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study, including the background of the research problem, a statement of the problem, purpose statement, the significance of the study, the nature of the study, and the theoretical framework within which the research falls.

1.2 Problem Identification

The general problem is that disengaged employees cost organizations a significant amount in both direct and indirect costs. Research reveals that more than half of employees on all levels are disengaged and this directly affects organization productivity levels and profitability (Gallup Survey, 2017; Victor Lipman, 2015). Employees who are not fully engaged are profiled as having multiple characteristics like (a) lack of commitment and turnover intention; (b) low energy; (c) low pro-social behaviour; (d) withdrawal, disconnection, disaffection, disinterestedness; (e) uncertainty; (f) dissatisfaction; (g) poor work performance; and (h) counterproductive work behaviors (Allenbaugh, 2003; Bielaszka-DuVernay, 2007; Branham, 2005; G. Johnson, 2004; Momal, 2003; Pater, 2013). Ultimately, an employee’s level of engagement affects their productivity and task efficiency (Bakker & Bal, 2010; Simpson, 2008; Sonnentag, 2003). Studies have illustrated that the perception of meaning in one’s job roles, tasks, successive engagement and dedication to one’s work are vital for organizational growth and success (Geldenhuys, Laba, & Venter, 2014; Rosso et al., 2010).

The specific problem is that discrepancies exist in the literature regarding strategies for creating a more engaged workforce, and leaders struggle to engage their employees (Shuck, 2011; Shuck & Wollard, 2010), especially on an individual level (Baumgartner, 2013). Employees concurrently look for leaders who demonstrate authenticity and character in their behaviour and leadership role (Frankl & Lasch, 1992; Verrier & De Braine, 2007). It is thus important for a leader to balance the use of their positional power to create an engaged workforce in which people can exhibit self-motivating behaviours that could make them go beyond their required duties as employees. (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009; Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart, 2001). Leadership namely “ethical leadership” is considered as a way forward. A leader with ethical values treats employees fairly and is empathetic. This treatment enhances employee satisfaction and creates trust, thus increasing employee motivation and promoting work engagement. (Whittington & Bell, 2016). In view to the above stated, Kjørstad, 2008, Shaw, 2005 and Shaw and Lunt, 2011 advocate that organizational and managerial research which is often referred to as “practitioner research” lacks the application of ethical theory with methodological enactment in a sophisticated manner (Rastogi, Pati, Krishnan, & Krishnan, 2018) thus, it is imperative to concentrate on the same and focus more on Ethical Leadership and its impacts.

The literature on workplace spirituality advocates that spirituality influences ethical considerations (O. Bhatti, Alam, Hassan, & Sulaiman, 2016; Omar Khalid Bhatti, Alkahtani, Hassan, & Sulaiman, 2015; Omar K Bhatti, Aslam, Hassan, & Sulaiman, 2016; Gotsis & Kortezi, 2008). Cavanagh Gerald, 1999 and Garcia‐Zamor, 2003 claim that workplace spirituality and ethics support one another as personal character and moral growth can make the business more humane. Along similar lines, Gull and Doh, 2004 affirm that spirituality can be a source of goodness in organizations as it provides a depth of understanding that enables a greater sense of morality. Despite the increasing debate, to date, there is a dearth of research in this area. Possibly this paucity is due to the newness of the field and the difficulty in gauging and understanding spirituality (P. Gibbons, 2000; Harrington, Preziosi, & Gooden, 2001). Notably, a good amount of research in the said area is quantitative in nature, investigating relationships between spirituality and facets of ethical decision-making (Beekun & Westerman, 2012; Fernando & Chowdhury, 2010; Kutcher, Bragger, Rodriguez-Srednicki, & Masco, 2010; Nur & Organ, 2006). Moreover, the existing body of Literature reflects that ethical leadership and workplace spirituality are studied as two separate constructs in relation to improving employee work engagement (McGhee & Grant, 2017). Nevertheless, very negligible research reflects the combined effect of both constructs (i.e., Ethical Leadership & Workplace Spirituality) on employee work engagement.

Certainly, imminent enhancement is critical for considering the role of ethical leadership in fostering workplace spirituality and employee work engagement (J. D. Houghton, Neck, & Krishnakumar, 2016; D. W. Miller & Ewest, 2013; Pawar, 2017). It lacks clarification from a constructivist perspective. Qualitative research techniques and methods using responses from multiple perspectives are suggested for future research to help deepen the understanding of the causal relationships (Petchsawang & McLean, 2017)

According to literature leadership and leadership style can affect engagement and in result enhancing employees morale and motivation (Den Hartog & Belschak, 2012; J. Xu & Thomas, 2011). Leaders help in increasing employee morale which in turns improves engagement and morale (J. Xu & Thomas, 2011). The basic premise of the Self Determination Theory is that individuals are motivated to depict certain behaviour on the basis of various intrinsic and extrinsic sources of motivation (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000). Further explanation is needed to understand the levels of engagement enhanced by ethical leadership by increasing motivation. For example, encouraging and ethically influencing leaders could instil motivation of employees under certain circumstances, which in turn enhances the engagement of employees. (Daniels, Brown, & Brown III, 2018). In addition, Inquiry on the existing relationship that is; Ethical Leadership with respect to workplace spirituality and employee work engagement is still inadequate (Lindblom, Kajalo, & Mitronen, 2015; Petchsawang & McLean, 2017). Indeed, the relationship needs further exploration and analysis under the umbrella of Self Determination Theory (SDT), and that too in context to South East Asia (Ko, Ma, Bartnik, Haney, & Kang, 2018; Resick et al., 2011; Q. Yang & Wei, 2017). Further to address gaps in the literature based upon recommendations by various authors, such as (Linuesa-Langreo, Ruiz-Palomino, & Elche-Hortelano, 2018; A. Saks, M., 2006) to further continue research to explore the antecedents of employee work engagement to add to the body of knowledge based upon which scholars will further build. This research advances the scientific knowledge in the fields of Ethical leadership and Employee work engagement and provides guidance to practitioners to understand better the value Ethical leaders can provide in cultivating

Work Engagement in the workplace in the presence of Workplace Spirituality.

1.3 Context Specific Research

Scientists of management are human beings. It is insurmountable to develop them without contemplating the impacts of cultural theory (Hofstede, 1981, 1991, 2001, 2006). In this context Pakistan’s culture was regarded. Pakistan like India and Japan among other few countries is a collectivist in nature. Social bonding, cohesion, social networks and group interests are highly regarded in Pakistan. While previous studies regarding work engagement focused on Europe and America, this research shifted the focal point to Pakistan.

The crucial role of education in behavioral therapy and character development cannot be written off (Berkowitz & Bier, 2004; Prestwich, 2004. There is an existential breach in Pakistan’s education sector. The double standards and gender inequalities in the education sector writes off many potential entrepreneurs. Therefore, there was a dire need to focus attention on teaching institutes as a major stakeholder in development of human resources. The study on various facets of entrepreneurship in contrasting cultural perspectives was necessitated by the fact that previous studies was engrossed in just a few of the women’s entrepreneurial behaviour missing other antecedents of women behaviour. In the contemporary world, entrepreneurship is a requisite for source of education, economic progression and entrepreneurial attitudes development (Vance, R. J. 2006). Hence it is in context to consider students as it is a crucial resource and future entrepreneurs. It is unequivocal that women in Pakistan consider universities as a passage to new enterprises.

Although the course of women involvement in business is on the right track, miniature pragmatic facts exist on how youth and women perceive entrepreneurial behavior. This dissertation is informed by the urge to explore the intention and behaviour of graduates and postgraduates take on entrepreneurship. According to the World’s Women Survey report (2015), women exceed 50% of Pakistan’s population. Unfortunately, 64% of the women’s population have never attended school. Women are an important pillar of every economy and should be given entrepreneurial opportunity (Lechman & Okonowicz, 2014). This study hence is focussed on Pakistan’s academic institutions to unravel the factors determining women contribution in entrepreneurship and in pursuit of getting a theoretical body of knowledge in Pakistan’s entrepreneurship.

For the foregoing reasons, The problem statement is stated below.

1.4 Problem Statement

In context to South East Asia, Pakistan becomes a noble based to opt in order to learn the existing phenomena of Work engagement better. As Pakistan is a collectivistic society, facing different political and economic issues; resultantly establishing a unique environment for understanding reasons of less engaged employees (Ahmad & Gao, 2018; Guest, 2013; S. Lee, Lovelace, & Manz, 2014; H. B. Schaufeli & Salanova, 2010; Steidle, Gonzalez-Morales, Hoppe, Michel, & O’shea, 2017). Hence, it implies that the current research attempts to establish the need for ethical leadership, workplace spirituality to overcome the problem of work engagement from the organizational standpoint. The major concern of our organizations is how to improve work engagement in the presence of workplace spirituality and Ethical Leadership as it needs a thorough analysis.

1.5 Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological study is to explore the understanding held by 20 leaders/Managers in Pakistan and the role ethical leader can play to engage employees in the presence of workplace spirituality. The 20 top tier CEO/leaders work at different service sectors in Pakistan and are responsible for formulating and implementing strategies. Learning more about what managers think about levels of work engagement and its effect initiated by ethical leadership will help the managers of different companies to develop strategies to improve employee engagement and efficiency in presence of workplace spirituality. Increasing employee engagement in the service sector may increase the engagement and profitability of different companies. The study will involve exploring the lived experiences and perceptions of managers as they relate to implementing strategies which in turn increase engagement in the workplace. The lived experiences and perceptions of managers will identify how the demeanors of disengaged employees affect productivity in a service sector setting (Andrew & Sofian, 2012; Gruman & Saks, 2011; Richman, 2006).

The analysis from this study will reveal that increasing the engagement level of employees would improve productivity in a service sector environment, thus increasing the financial performance of organizations. Increasing employee engagement could create financial gains and effect positive social change by increasing productivity and developing employees with higher levels of engagement in different companies. Research question will help the researcher to focus on the problem (Petty, Thomson, & Stew, 2012; Schultze & Avital, 2011). In this study, the researcher will include semi-structured interview questions to gather data about the lived experiences of professionals working in a service sector setting. Interview questions are valid for gathering information about a particular phenomenon (Petty et al., 2012; Schultze & Avital, 2011).

1.6 Research Question

Research question provides a platform to further explore and guide the researcher starting from data collection to analysis remaining under the same parameters of originality and novelty. (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). The purpose of this phenomenological study is to explore whether managers indicate the importance of employee work engagement in the presence of ethical leadership and workplace spirituality. The following research question will be addressed by exploring the manager’s beliefs and experience illustrated through their own words and obtained via a semi-structured interview.

The main research question for the current study is:

How does understanding and experience regarding ethical leadership and workplace spirituality helps in enhancing employee work engagement initiatives in the workplace?

Sub questions to the central research question allowed for a more detailed exploration of the phenomenon (Creswell, 2007). The sub questions were:

• How does Ethical Leadership assist in improving employee engagement?
• How does Workplace Spirituality support in enhancing employee work engagement?
• How does Ethical Leadership assist in enhancing employee engagement in presence of workplace spirituality?
• How does workplace spirituality assist in enhancing employee engagement in presence of Ethical leadership?

1.7 Research Objectives

Work engagement is not an accidental event or one that takes place in isolation. It is the result of a multifaceted interface between person and environmental factors. Therefore in order to identify the factors that contribute to the occurrence of employee engagement, a detailed and systematic appraisal of all the factors at stake is needed. In view of the above the objectives of this study are as follows:

• To investigate Ethical Leadership in enhancing Employee Work engagement
• To investigate Workplace Spirituality in increasing Employee Work engagement
• To explore the effect of Ethical Leadership in enhancing Employee Work engagement in the presence of workplace spirituality
• To explore the effect of workplace spirituality in enhancing employee work engagement in the presence of Ethical leadership

1.8 Scope of Study

There are gaps identified in the literature concerning the relationship between the defined research variables of the study, and a growing body of research suggests a need to comprehend the combined effect of ethical leadership, workplace spirituality on employee’s engagement at the workplace. Further, the research is focused on understanding the relationship between ethical leadership and engaged employee. Specifically, this study would assess the extent to which work engagement is influenced by workplace spirituality in natural settings. Most of the studies that have been conducted in the past generally covers the US and Western cultures and the literature reveals limited research conducted in developing nations (Dust, Resick, Margolis, Mawritz, & Greenbaum, 2018; Tu, Lu, Choi, & Guo, 2018; Tu, Lu, & Yu, 2017).

The current study focuses on understanding and assessing the relationship between ethical leadership, workplace spirituality and employee work engagement in the context of South East Asia specifically Pakistan. The provisional GDP 2017-18 of Pakistan has been estimated at 5.79 per cent. The growth of the agricultural, industrial and services sectors is 3.81%, 5.80% and 6.43% respectively. Shares of services are increasing in all sectors of the economy over the period in Pakistan. In fact, the growth rate of services sector is higher than the growth rate of agriculture and industrial sector. The service sector accounts for 54 per cent of GDP and little over one-third of total employment (Nazish, Iqbal, & Ramzan, 2013). The services sector has strong linkages with other sectors of the economy; it provides essential inputs to the agriculture sector and the manufacturing sector. The rationale for choosing service firms of Pakistan is like any other country in South East Asia companies are confronting the existent problem of engagement and burnout (Nasir & Bashir, 2012; Sabir & Khan, 2011; Shah & Khan, 2015). Thus, this study attempts to better understand how ethical leadership, workplace spirituality and work engagement can contribute to understanding in the context of Pakistan.

1.9 Significance of the Study

The present study helps in understanding the phenomena of work engagement, workplace spirituality and ethical leadership to further enhance professionals to understand and strengthen their own ethical practices and processes. It will also help managers to discover ways to further integrate their spirituality in the workplace to enhance employee work engagement. Further, this study enhances the existing body of research in which workplace spirituality is positioned as a construct that might positively affect employee work engagement and consequent success of the organization.

The research will further facilitate the explanation of whether workplace spirituality serves as a construct for enhancing work engagement resulting from ethical leadership or not. Collectively, these variables can strengthen work engagement and lead to benefiting outcomes for employees and the organization. Hence, this study is significant for the following reasons. By increasing employee engagement it creates opportunities for organizations to improve their competitive advantage, gain market share, and improve employee satisfaction and psychological ownership. By studying the concept of WS, Employee work engagement and ethical leadership firms can have a better understanding of the organizational climate within the organization. Outcomes such as employee engagement can uncover relevant information about an employee’s affection and engagement toward the organization. It can also reveal information about the conditions in which employees conduct their activities and how they can be enhanced with the help of workplace spirituality to avoid disengaged employees. In sum, studying ethical leadership, workplace spirituality and employee work engagement can lead to a better understanding of the actual status of the organizational climate and enhance engagement of employees with the organization. The following study will help in addressing the gaps in two significant ways firstly by exploring the phenomenon of employee engagement form a qualitative perspective and secondly by investigating the lived expertness of managers and their understanding that how ethical leadership can enhance employee work engagement in presence of workplace spirituality.

1.10 Terms & Definitions

Engaged Employees. Engaged employees are those who have a physical, emotional, and cognitive commitment to their organizations; are dedicated to the organizational values; and exert discretionary effort to achieve personal and organizational goals (Kahn, 1990; Kular, Gatenby, Rees, Soane, & Truss, 2008; Saradha & Patrick, 2011; Serrano & Reichard, 2011; Vaijayanthi, Shreenivasan, & Prabhakaran, 2011).

Disengaged/Actively Disengaged Worker. Disengaged and actively disengaged workers withdraw from their work roles, tend to become defensive, and apply minimal effort toward their work (Asplund & Blacksmith, 2011; Kahn, 1990; Sanford & Coffman, 2002).

Disengagement has been defined as “distancing oneself from one’s work, and experiencing negative attitudes toward the work object, work content, or one’s work in general” (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001, p. 501).

Work engagement is defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigour, dedication, and absorption (W. B. Schaufeli & Bakker, 2010; W. B. Schaufeli, Salanova, González-romá, & Bakker, 2002, p. 74).

Spirituality: “The reflection of the presence of a relationship with a higher power or being that affects the way in which one operates in the world” (Fry, 2003, p. 705).

Workplace spirituality: it is “A framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’ experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being connected in a way which provides feelings of compassion and joy” (Jurkiewicz & Giacalone, 2004, p. 13).

Ethical leadership is the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (Michael E Brown, Treviño, & Harrison, 2005, p. 120).

Self-determination theory (SDT) posits that human beings, besides having innate physiological needs such as food and shelter, also have innate psychological needs a need to achieve goals and outcomes (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000). These innate needs are regardless of social strata or cultural origin” (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000) and are often achieved—or attempted—through an individual’s intrinsic motivation (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000).

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The purpose of the following phenomenological study was to understand the perceptions, attitude and beliefs of leaders in the service sector of Pakistan. The general problem of the study is that employees who are not engaged lead to significant direct and indirect losses of an organization. The specific problem is that discrepancies exist in the present literature regarding factors that contribute and the most effective interventions for more engaged force and leaders struggle to understand how engaged their employees (Shuck, 2011; Shuck & Wollard, 2010) especially at the individual level. Chapter 2 provides a review of researchers and influential theorist in the field of employee engagement, highlighting data from the present literature and identifying the gap in the literature.

2.1.1 Sources Used

The following literature review provides an overview of existing research with a comprehensive picture to the study topic so that individuals understand what is already known and what will be added to the existing body of research (Cronin, Ryan, & Coughlan, 2008; Rowley & Slack, 2004). Instead of only providing a synopsis of existing data researchers analyzes, evaluates and synthesizes the data that why there was need of investigation (Machi & McEvoy, 2012; Onwuegbuzie, Leech, & Collins, 2012).The review consists of influential and original work relevant to the topic of study (Cronin et al., 2008). The following study consist of a review of employee engagement in the presence of Ethical leadership and Workplace Spirituality. Resources used for review of literature review included articles and studies found in journals, books, peer-reviewed journals and studies from different consulting firms. For a review of literature most common method used was electronic databases for locating research (Cronin et al., 2008). The search included but not limited to ProQuest, Google scholar, PsycInfo, ABI/INFORM, CINAHL and electronic journals specific databases. The process Included employee engagement with other keywords which included Boolean searches to narrow the field of relevant articles (Cronin et al., 2008).

Keyword searches for the area of employee engagement included employee engagement and its antecedents, employee engagement and its understanding, employee engagement and leadership, employee engagement and ethical leadership, employee engagement and workplace Spirituality, employee engagement and performance. Many other additional sources were used and located by referring to the list of references retrieved from articles. While scanning the articles additional topics emerged that gave depth and added value to the study by giving additional information on the cost and benefits of engagement and enhancing perspective on the orientation of the study. The number of sources used in the following study is approximately 300-400.

The sources included the following:

Table 1: Source & Number of References

Sr.

SOURCE

1. OF SOURCES

1

Scholarly and Professional Journal Articles

199

2

Books

26

3

Research Studies from Consulting Firms

40

4

Other Sources:

White Papers, Government Sources, Blogs etc.

42

2.1.1 Research Question

This qualitative phenomenological study was informed by the urge to explore perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes held by 25 leaders in the Pakistan’s service sector. The study further examined the roles played by those leaders on their receptivity and experience with employee engagement. The whole study was steered by the following research questions:

1. How does understanding and experience of leaders regarding ethical leadership and workplace spirituality help in enhancing employee work engagement initiatives in the workplace?

2.2 Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) was postulated in the year 1985 by (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and since its inception, this theory has been used in different domains; which includes sports, economics, and education domain. Self-determination theory insinuates that cognitive flexibility, creativity and problem solving are as a result of work outcomes resulting from the motivation to satisfy ones’ needs (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Social environment impacts ones’ ability to satisfy his or her need’s fulfillment. Taking that into account, workplace spirituality may serve as a mechanism by the politically skilled servant leaders to impact employees’ creative thinking. There are three basic psychological needs according to SDT viz: needs of autonomy (choice), competence (challenging activities),and interpersonal relatedness (sense of belonging) (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Hence we can take as a hypothesis that spirituality comprises of the foregoing needs through its dimensions of the inner life. (i.e., the ability to bring the whole self to work), meaningful work (i.e., finding value in one’s job activities), and community (i.e., recognizing an inter-connectedness to others), respectively.

Self-determination theory has a central principle: which holds that humans, as functioning organisms, have an inbuilt need, so, therefore, moves toward, psychological growth (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000). Before you could be referred to as self-determinant, you must “engage in an activity with a full sense of wanting, choosing, and personal endorsement” (Wehmeyer & Garner, 2003). These inbuilt needs can be divided into three categories: relatedness, competence, and autonomy (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000). Competence can be referred to as the confidence in one’s abilities (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000), and also the need to feel useful in one’s surrounding, the feeling of efficiency when one attempts to interact with their world (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004) (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). An individual can achieve a proper feeling of competence, through either competition with others or with oneself, and this could be as a result of increased intrinsic motivations (Elliot, McGregor, & Thrash, 2002).

The feeling of belonging to a social group or unit is referred as Relatedness (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000), also the act of feeling linked to and having care for other people (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). Relatedness is also a causal factor for boosts in intrinsic motivations in an individual; for instance, children who enjoy feelings of relatedness from family and friends frequently show higher intrinsic motivation (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2003).

The ability to self-regulate one’s behaviours and actions in the process of achieving proposed goals is referred to as Autonomy (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000). Autonomy frequently displays itself in one’s abilities to “act in accord with [one’s] integrated sense of self” (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). In spite of some scholars argument that the need for autonomy is not universal but just restricted to Western culture (Iyengar & Devoe, 2003), several researchers argue that the desire for autonomy exhibits itself as an essential human trait. This inbuilt desire for autonomy, for instance, provides “greater enjoyment” in “high 14 choice situations” (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2006). Just as the three primary domains of SDT are linked to one another, so too are they connected to motivation. Every individual experience varying motivation based on their opinioned relationship to the three domains. Due to this fact, individuals may experience motivation ranging on a scale from motive to intrinsic motivation. According to R. M. Ryan and Deci, 2000, intrinsic motivation could refer to the performance of a job/task because one discovers that it is enjoyable or done in pursuit of a particular set of goals. While extrinsic motivation is the performance of a job/task with the expectation that doing so will result in some exterior rewards, in the form of monetary gain or the acceptance by one’s peers (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Therefore, people may find themselves more or less motivated to accomplish some particular goals based on the source of their motivations or the fulfilment of their domains over time (R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2000). As individuals move from motivation to intrinsic motivation levels, their interest, and experience in a particular circumstance change. For instance, an individual who is experiencing fatigue may feel forced by outside forces (such as employers or social pressure) to carry out a particular task; thus, their emotions in relations to the task will be negative (Koestner & Losier, 2002). Also when the need for psychological growth and fulfilment is obstructed, or unfulfilled, symptoms such as substance abuse or the creation of a substitute ego/personality might be the case (Hodgins & Knee, 2002). Through analysis, some of the research performed on managers of organizations, the researcher hopes to better comprehend the role self-determination theory can come into play in understated the work engagement in the presence of ethical leadership and environment comprising spirituality.

2.3 Employee Engagement – History

The study of employee work engagement gained substantial development in a very short time. The research form practitioners and academic exploration, major consulting firms and published guidelines from key professional organizations evolved into less than 25 years (Caniëls Marjolein, Semeijn Judith, & Renders Irma, 2018; Welch, 2011). The primary reason for researchers taking interest in employee engagement is considered to be the most important predictor of outcomes at the organizational, team and individual levels (Bakker Arnold & Albrecht, 2018). The purpose of the following section is to highlight the key work that shaped and took a step ahead towards the evolution of employee work engagement as a phenomenon. This section also provides information regarding factors including, Ethical leadership and workplace spirituality that contributed towards increasing work engagement as well as costs and benefits associated with employees being engaged and disengaged. The further literature review concludes regarding gaps in the literature and addresses the need to be investigated regarding the understanding of employee work engagement in the presence of workplace spirituality and ethical leadership.

2.3.1 Employee Engagement Defined and Clarified

Kahn, 1990 initiated the phrase, work engagement. He stated that people feel engaged with their work when they “express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally” while working (Kahn, 1990, p. 694). On the contrary, disengagement occurs when people “withdraw themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally” when working (Kahn, 1990, p. 694). Khan was the first researcher who investigated regarding moments of levels of engagement on individuals in the varying environment (Huertas-Valdivia, Llorens-Montes, & Ruiz-Moreno, 2018). Additionally, the degree of work engagement or disengagement depends on the employees’ answers to three questions: “(1) How meaningful is it for me to bring myself to this performance? (2) How safe is it to do so? and (3) How available am I to do so?” (Kahn, 1990).

Kahn, 1990 defined engagement based on the work of Goffman, 1961, Abraham H Maslow, 1971 and Alderfer, 1972 and Hackman, 1980. Engagement consists of three dimensions:

1. Meaningfulness, sense of return on investments of self in role performance;
2. Safety, feeling of being able to show and employ self without fear of negative consequences to self-image, status, or career;
3. Availability, sense of possessing the physical, emotional, and psychological resources necessary for investing self in role performances (Kahn, 1990, p. 705).

Table 2

Definition of Work engagement

Authors, years

The harnessing of organizational members selves to their work roles, in engagement people, employ and express themselves physically, cognitively and emotionally during role performance

Kahn, 1990

An energetic state of involvement with personally fulfilling activities that enhance cores sense of professional efficacy(from burnout literature)

Leiter and Maslach, 1998

A persistent, positive affective-motivational state of fulfilment in employees that is characterized by high levels of motivation and pleasure

Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter, 2001

The individual’s involvement and satisfaction with as well as enthusiasm for work

Harter et al., 2002

Employee engagement is the amount of “Discretionary effort” in the form of time, brainpower or energy that employees exhibit at work

Towers Watson(2003)

The extent to which employees commit to something or someone in the organization and how hard they work and how long they stay as a result of that commitment

Council Corporate Leadership, 2004

A distinct and unique construct that consists of a cognitive, emotional and behavioural component that is associated with individual role performance

1. Saks, M., 2006

Employee engagement is a heightened emotional and intellectual connection that an employee has for his/her job organization, manager, or coworker that in turn influences him/her to apply the additional discretionary effect to his/her work

(J. M. Gibbons, 2006)

The employee sense of purpose and focused energy that is evident to others through the display of personal initiative, adaptability, effort and persistence directed towards the organization’s goals

Macey, Schneider, Barbera, and Young, 2009

Employee engagement encompasses three dimensions, rational(how well employees understand their roles and responsibilities), emotional(how many occasions they bring to their work and their organizations)and motivational (how willing they are to invest discretionary effort to perform their roles well)

Toers Watson (2009)

The extent to which employees share their company’s values feel pride in working for their company are committed to working for their company and have a favourable perspective of their work environment

Towers Watson (2010)

To enhance work engagement, an organization should create work to be more meaningful by providing challenging, creative, autonomous, and variety in work, build nonthreatening and consistent social situations to ensure safety and provide sufficient resources to ensure availability (Kahn, 1990). In 1961, Goffman found that people based on their transitory interactions become attached or detached to the roles they fill (Kahn, 1990; Kular et al., 2008; Sarbin, 2003). Goffman’s concept of frame analysis, suggest that individuals modify their behaviours and actions according to the context of the situation (Kahn, 1990; Rodham, 2000). Kahn, 1990 believed that a more comprehensive study was required to address the ongoing and lasting roles which individuals play in the organization. Kahn, 1990 conducted his study on an architecture company in a camp. He was first to use words such as personal (engagement) and personal (disengagement) when relating to employees commitment levels and experiences at the workplace (Kular et al., 2008; Shuck & Wollard, 2010). Personal engagement, work engagement and employee engagement are words used by scholars interchangeably. (Carasco-Saul, Kim, & Kim, 2015). Term employee engagement was first used by the Gallup organization (W. B. Schaufeli, 2013).

Employees show different levels of engagement at the workplace as found by (Kahn, 1990) depending on three conditions which they experience in the organization. First is meaningfulness as it is the degree to which individuals find meaning and purpose in the work they do in their respective roles. Second is safety, or trust or ability he or she could trust to get them engaged fully without any payback (Kahn, 1990). The third is availability or capacity that employees invest psychologically, emotionally and physically (Kahn, 1990). Book published First, Break All the Rules: What the World’s Greatest Managers Do Differently by Marcus Buckingham and Curt Coffman from the Gallup the organization in 1999. In this book the authors affirmed the importance of the influence of leaders on employee commitment with the organization after doing research on 80,000 leaders from 400 organizations (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). The book emphasized the importance of professional and consultants affiliations, such as a society for corporate leadership, human resource management, Towers Perrin, and American Society for training and development, that acknowledged employee engagement and the concept became highlighted and accepted instantaneously (Shuck & Wollard, 2010). Soon after this breakthrough work, researchers begin to explore this phenomenon and its impact on employees and business outcomes. One of the significant work was published in 2001 by (Maslach et al., 2001).

Engagements effects on the employees were first published in 2001 by (Maslach et al., 2001) after the review of 25 years of research work on Job burnout. Burnout is experienced by individuals when they are faced with excessive work demands and pressure at work. Whereas employee engagement is experienced by employees when they face positive feedback, learning and opportunities to grow (Maslach et al., 2001) in their analysis, Maslach et al., 2001 also highlighted the importance of the role played by individuals engagement levels and found that this level varies and employees handle more work demand if they find meaning in their work. Employee engagement and corporate profits were the first link studied by (Harter et al., 2002; Jeung, 2011; Shuck & Wollard, 2010) which included nearly 8,000 units within 36 organizations. As higher the level of engagement higher correlated with increased job satisfaction, productivity, safety profits and retention of employees (Harter et al., 2002).