Institutional Discrimination
Introduction
The subject of discrimination whether unconscious or institutional has existed for many years. Although discrimination is an international problem is it is more prevalent in developed countries in comparison to developing countries. Most immigrants who seek greener pastures in developed countries often face ethnic or racial prejudice more so on issues concerning education, employment, and housing. The purpose of this study is to get in-depth knowledge and understanding of institutional discrimination. This paper analyses the lived experiences in modern discrimination and the differences between modern and traditional discrimination experiences. The conclusion is an examination of the positive changes in society and the role of affirmative action in combating institutional discrimination.
Modern Institutional Discrimination
Today the social processes that led to racial inequality are indirect and challenging to measure and document. Time and again, such processes originate from incidences of past deliberate racial discrimination although they are not openly racial in the present. An example is the black minorities in America who are subjected to less desirable housing, jobs, education, and the justice system.
When employment opportunities are concerned, blacks experience closed networks and racial exclusion in the job market. A closer examination of the job market reveals that black graduates are less likely to be employed or are subject to lower wages and promotions when compared to white graduates. The difference is attributed to access to networks of referrals. White graduates have received assistance through referrals and networks during job recruitment. Such assistance was not formerly available to the black community more so because the unions have in the past been racially discriminatory.
Another example of modern institutions discrimination for black Americans is about homeownership. With a financial asset such as homeownership, families get to escape poverty and become socially mobile. Such financial of homeownership is particularly of interest to blacks since they have been subject to racial economic discrimination in the real estate market for a long time. An analysis by Awad & Rackley (2017), established that black and other minority groups of color were more exposed to victimization by the lethal so-called “subprime,” home loans. They were also twice as likely to undergo foreclosure as a result.
Approximately 40 years ago, an investigation on black urban unrest notified that the United States was on the verge of having to separate and unequal societies, the blacks, and whites. This warning seemed prophetic because without repudiating the progress that the country has made towards racial unification, the whites and people of color live in separate and unequal worlds. Each group with a record of violence and hate crime towards the other. Although the power differentiation and historical occurrences of inequality that are the heritage of the racist past imply that people of color are most of the time seen as “invaders”. They tend to enter into unwanted territories.
Comparing Traditional and Modern Institutional Discrimination
Traditional institutional discrimination was depicted by Jim Crow segregation is characterized by the most unconcealed forms of discrimination. The effects of both the traditional and modern institutional discrimination are equally powerful and they both led to racial inequality in income and employment. However, when traditional institutional discrimination was expressed more directly and openly, modern institutional discrimination tends to be indirect and less obvious. The traditional institution was well portrayed in the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case, whereby the Supreme Court endorsed racial segregation. As a result, the first part of the twentieth century saw the marginalization of African Americans who were then forced to live in segregated neighborhoods. They also were limited to the cheapest, unskilled, and service occupations.
People interacting with modern institutional discrimination tend to have a negative feeling towards the minority groups outcry of inferiority and discrimination. The traditional American value system insists on personal responsibility and the need for hard work (Awad & Rackley, 2017). More precisely, modern racism assumes that racial or ethnic discrimination is a result of failure to work hard and the demands for affirmative action for minorities are unwarranted. They blame the victim and leave the mandate for change and improvement to individuals in the minority groups as opposed to society. On the other hand, traditional racism was based on the genetic or biological inferiority of the minority groups.
The Role of Affirmative Action
In the past, beneficiaries of higher education were mostly white males more so if they had a referral. Affirmative action was introduced to combat racial inequality among minorities and women. The earliest affirmative action program can be traced back to World War II (Fallucchi & Quercia, 2018). President Franklin Roosevelt’s specifically ordered the barring of discrimination against blacks. This contributed a lot to women and blacks getting jobs although the jobs were soon taken away by returning GIs after World War II.
President John F. Kennedy later introduced measures to curb discrimination which he referred to as affirmative action. The measures were to make certain the equivalence of employment prospects short of regard to race, faith, and nationality. Gender was later included in the secure list. When the education system is concerned Brown v. Board of Education case, was the first of its kind to declare separate public schools for black and white students illegal. The Supreme Court, however, stated that affirmative action each university is voluntary, and not necessitated in any way by law to have it.
Discrimination and stereotypes of minorities ‘ capabilities are still prevalent and they are worsened by historical discrimination. As a result, the progress of minorities is curtailed. For instance, lower education levels in minority can be attributed to the schools in segregated neighborhoods that offer lesser development opportunities. In addition, stigma and stereotypes have a negative impact on parental and teacher belief in the good performance of a student.
In this view, making equal the opportunities in education and the job market to all groups is a positive attribute of affirmative action (Fallucchi & Quercia, 2018). Minorities and women who benefit from affirmative action are more than capable of performing their duties as students and employees even though their qualifications on paper are poorer than they white people they replace. Besides, affirmative action creates positive “externalities” which can have a ripple positive effect among minorities such as through mentoring. As a result, affirmative action has to be present for the equal and fair distribution of education and employment opportunities.
Positive Changes in the Society
The society today has put in place measures to reduce discriminatory bias in the job market more so for minority immigrants. An example of such a measure is the mentorship or networking program. This program is founded on the basis that women and minority immigrants have access to limited social capital and hence the continued inequality. Formal networking programs offer a safe space for members to discuss and share information.
Most of these programs match senior women or minorities with new or lower members of the same group. They have face to face regular meetings with the goal of formalizing systems that generate social capital for the group. Through the meetings, marginalized people who tend to be overlooked by the social-economic system are not left behind when important job opportunities suffice. They get more information on securing job opening, promotions, and training. While such a measure creates the much needed social ties, they work best by fixing the individual through the deliberate need to increase the social capital of members of stranger groups.
Conclusion
Advancement towards equality for minorities had slowed or stagnated significantly since the 1960s. Based on the recent public opinion polls minimal support or sympathy is being given to the discriminated groups. Traditional institutional discrimination has weakened, only for modern institutional discrimination to take its place. In the court of public opinion, immigrants are often held answerable for their predicament. In acknowledging these challenges, we cannot ignore the real improvements visible in the lives of minorities and women. In comparison to the days of Jim Crow, immigrants especially black minorities are in a better position politically and economically with some being our modern-day heroes.
However, the improvement in per capita income and education among minorities may cover the underlying institutional discrimination issues more so in the postindustrial era. Subtle racism, poverty, joblessness, a weakening educational system, and residential segregation is still a reality for millions of immigrants and people of color.
References
Awad, G. H., & Rackley, K. R. (2017). Prejudice and Discrimination. The International Encyclopedia of Intercultural Communication, 1-9.
Fallucchi, F., & Quercia, S. (2018). Affirmative action and retaliation in experimental contests. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 156, 23-40.