History dates back to the ancient periods, such as medieval, renaissance, roman, and the 20th centuries. Each period was significant to the development in Europe. The report will focus on Baroque as the important architectural fortress of the urban. It will also discuss factors that led to the evolution of the period. Besides the period was faced by several problems which the majority of them were negative. Finally, the report will discuss the in-depth impact of the medieval period to urban development.
Main architectural and urban period.
Baroque architecture is dated in the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe. It was associated with drama aspects. It developed from the renaissance designs, which involved a lot of carving. The art was majorly designed on landscaping in Italy. Baroque was a reference for deformity. It was characterized by a variety of colors, shapes, sculptural values, and intensity. It was associated with counter-reformation, which was a Catholic movement. It was aimed at reforming itself from the protestant reformation. It constituted of roman vocabulary.
The medieval urban period dates from the fifth to the fifteenth centuries. It developed after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Later on, the middle ages (medieval) gave rise to a renaissance, which finally led to the age of discovery. Middle ages are divided into three traditions, namely: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is further divided into early middle ages, high middle ages, and late middle ages. The medieval period was associated with severe times in the human era. However, the period marked a significant increment of population.
Factors that led to the evolution of the medieval period
Population growth in the middle ages
The population was the critical factor that led to the growth of the middle ages. Between 1050 and 1500, the population reached its peak in Europe. However, it declined between 1200 and 1275 due to challenges that faced Europe, such as civil wars, accidents, and unfavorable climatic conditions. The population increased productivity because labor was available. Health crops rich in minerals and vitamins improved the eating lifestyles of the people. The life expectancy of people was high, and the population curve kept on increasing.
Technology in the middle ages.
Technology-led to economic growth. Technology led to innovations and dissemination in Europe. During the Roman period, they were not conscious of technology. The medieval period was reasonably interested in technology advancement. Middle ages were termed as dark ages because there were little developments that were achieved during those times. However, middle ages tried to come up with innovation, but they were not successful until the period of discoveries. Cereal production increased during the medieval period.
They devised mechanisms of improving cereal production from the soil before the chemical fertilizers were invented. They used drought animals, especially horses. Ox drawn plows were used, and the animals provided enough labor in the fields. Europe had a significant population and required a lot of food to sustain it. They preferred horses more than an ox. The horseshoe was developed to protect the more sensitive horse hooves. Horseshoe prevented traction in the soil. Skills of harnessing horse development.
Farming improvements
The heavy wheeled plow was developed in Europe during the Carolingian period. It was used in large scale farming. Most magnificent churches and monasteries majorly used it. It was increased throughout during middle ages until the eleventh centuries. The plow was beneficial for various reasons: the slicing power of the implement was high as it cut deep soil clods. Soils in Europe were productive, although they were deep clay soils. Such soils are tough to work on and require sophisticated equipment. However, the implementation was well suited for the soil since it could turn the crevices of the soil effectively.
The use of implement led to increased demand for iron in Europe. Iron was used in making of the plow. Smiting improved as much of the tool was required. Therefore the development of the plow led to the establishment of the smiting industry in Europe. Watermills were also developed, which were much used during the 11th century. In Low Countries, they used windmills in turning mill. However, the watermill was more efficient than windmill because there was a constant flow of water, unlike wind, which blew seasonally. Mills were used in milling cereals. There was a surplus production of grains in Europe. More land was converted for farming, and innovations were incorporated in agriculture.
The high population required a lot of food for better living. They relied mostly on bread, which was the staple food in Europe. Therefore many milling stations were established to ensure massive4e production. Factors for the evolution of medieval led to one another.
New method of land use in the middle ages
The land was extensively used.
Intensive farming was practiced in productive areas. Crop rotation was embraced. Farmers could cultivate in one region until it becomes less productive. Farmers used to shift to more fertile land that led to shifting cultivation. Communities were able to sustain themselves for an extended period. Exhausted land was left fallow for a certain period until it gained fertility. There was a mutual benefit between animals and crops. Animals provided manure for pasture regeneration. Manure provided organic fertilizers in the farms before the invention of chemical fertilizers.
In 1050 the three-field system was conventional in Europe. The land was divided into three portions. One portion was planted winter crops, the other plot with spring crops, and the other one was left fallow. The system later referred to as rotational farming. More land was put under cultivation. Balancing of winter and spring crops gave a surety of alternative opportunities in case one enterprise failed. Besides, the drought animals fed on the plant remains from the farm. Surplus production was sold earning income. The insurance of crops was guaranteed from the variety of vegetables they grew. Excess production led to the development of trade.
Roads were also required to provide means of transport for the food products. Wagon and horses demand increased as they were the means of transport.
Trade in the high middle ages.
The development of transport and vehicles led to the establishment of urban centers. Cities developed in turn, and a lot of food was required since agriculture was not practiced in the cities. The demand for food increased in the towns. Agriculture was the key factor in the trade. Church and government worked for hand in hand to protect traders and trading routes. Increased business led to the emergence of exotic products from other countries and the establishment of crusades. Having exotic products was termed as prestigious and deserved some sense of respect. Trade fairs were formed to control trade. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the business moved from the Mediterranean region to northern Europe. Rivers were also used as a form of transport by using boats.
Mining and heavy industry in the middle ages
Surface mining was practiced, which favored diffusion of the medieval period. Stone mining was the primary activity because metal mining required deep excavation, and there was no machinery during that period. Stones were used in building churches and urban centers. A small amount of iron was obtained through surface mining.
Urban centers in the middle ages
The discussed factors increased money circulation, which facilitated economic growth. Early medieval cities were mostly legislative seats. Most of the town centers developed faux-burgs, which are currently known as suburbs. They were mainly occupied by merchants who came together to take part in the trade. They did business part-time. Settlement in the suburb began in 1100 as merchants. The artisan industry starts to develop due to the influence of merchants. The government, in collaboration with the government, set regulations for harmonious living in towns. Before the high middle ages, Europe was industrious and dynamic.
#Problems associated with the development of Medieval
The Crisis of Medieval was a series of events in the 14th and 15th centuries. The problems affected the growth of European prosperity. It led to three significant issues: demographic collapse, political instabilities, and religious upheavals. Series of famine broke out due to population increase, such as great famine of 1315-17. The European population took over 150 years to regain its normal state of 13900. Civil wars broke during late-Medieval Europe, such as France and England. The significant unity of the Catholic Church was disrupted by western Schism. The great Roman Empire lost its stability in the great interregnum (1247-1273).
Demography
At the beginning of the 14th century, European states were hit with population upheavals. Internal colonization was declining during that time despite the increment of the population that kept rising. The medieval warm period ended in the 13th century and led to little ice age. It was accompanied by harsh winters which consumed harvests. New technological innovations in Northern-Europe were not practical. Large plow and three-field system were not useful for the primary cultivation. They were used in the Mediterranean region. However, the northern part had deep clay soils which required sophisticated equipment such as subsoilers and forked jembe. Food shortage becomes a crisis, and price inflation occurred.
Food shortage led to malnutrition, which subjected people to vulnerable diseases due to weakened immunity. The northern region was hit by great famine for seven years. During (1315-1317), north-west Europe was heated by a catastrophic famine called Great Famine. The ordeal reduced the European population by 10%. The government prohibited the export of foodstuffs as a remedy, although the black market dominated the illegal trade. It also set standard prices on grains and banned large-scale farming of fishing. The regulation was a setback for most countries globally.
England was unable to import grain from France due to the strict regulations. Production of cereals declined due to a shortage of labor and implements to facilitate cultivation due to the great famine. The shipment of seeds was also harbored due to increased sea pirates who captured ships and sold grains into the black market. Countries like England and Scotland spent much of their time in a war, which led to price inflation. During Black Death, England and France got into a fight in 1337, known as the Hundred Years’ War. Landowners and monarchs increased fines and rent in fear of declining living standards. The European economy was adversely affected and led to a vicious circle of epidemics such as drought, hunger, and diseases.
Productivity went down that led to a surge of prices. Eventually, it led to low living standards. Typhoid epidemic struck urban centers, and massive death was recorded in Ypres (Belgium). Animals were not spared due outbreak of anthrax. It claimed livestock, especially cattle and sheep, leading to reduced food supply and income of the proletariat.
Climate change and the great famine
The transition from the medieval warm period to little ice age led to devastating floods, which affected the harvest. Heavy rains poured during 1315 and 1317, which increased incidences of flooding. Crop maturation was changed, and most parts were left rocky and barren. Scarcity of grains led to increased famine and price inflation. In Europe, the price of wheat doubled from twenty shillings to forty shillings in 1315. Grave harvests declined that led to a decrease in wine production in Europe. By 1317, vineyard fields decreased by 80% in the Abbey of Saint-Arnould. Livestock production declined due to attacks by Bovine Pestilence. The epidemic spread further to Asia and Britain territories by 1319. Low temperatures and a decline in nutrition made animals susceptible to diseases due to weakened immunity. Milk production declined drastically, and the massive death of animals followed. Most of the Medieval peasant proteins were obtained from animals, which affected the entire population. 15% of the European population died due to famine and pestilence. Climatic changes were steered by human influence. There were limited regulations in conserving the environment.
Political and religious crisis
Before Medieval urban development, popular revolts were not experienced in Europe. They emerged during the medieval era. Local uprisings started to erupt, such as manor house against unpleasant overload uprisings. Revolutions become prevalent when the high-class people exploited low-class people. Social movements were initiated, which led to demonstrations across Europe. In Germany, it recorded sixty phases of militant peasant unrest during 1336 and 1525.
As discussed earlier, the political crisis affected the stable religious statue of Europe. The unity of the Roman Catholic Church was shattered, which led to the decline of the Holy Roman Empire. The empire lost its stability, and it split into dynasties, especially from Germany. Civil wars erupted, which reduced the European population, such as ottoman wars and a hundred Years’ War.
Plague
Plague killed many people during the medieval ages. The epidemic was also called the Black Death. Yersinia pestis bacteria transmitted it. Rats were vectors for the disease. People died in England, Wales, Spain, Russia, France, Italy, and Germany. The epidemic caused buboes (oozing swelling) all over the body. It caused the darkening of the skin due to toxins released in the bloodstream hence Black Death. It was transmitted through sneezing and spitting from one person to the other. It affected the respiratory system, especially the lungs.
The plague killed almost half of the population in Europe. People lacked prevention and treatment measures for the epidemic. People believed God punished it out of human sin. The incubation period for the bubonic plague was one week. Survival chances were 20% once infected. Children were most vulnerable to the epidemic, and they recorded the highest mortality rate.
Travel
During the medieval period traveling was faced with hostility. It was challenging to locate a secure place to sleep. Travelers slept in open areas during winter and were subjected to freezing and eventually death. Traveling in groups provided security. However, it was possible to be robbed by one of the fellows in the group. Food poisoning was common in Europe. If a person ran out of food, he was supposed to steal, go hungry or forage. Medieval travelers were caught between wars and sometimes were thrown into prison or get injured. They lacked foreign language understanding making communication difficult. Travelers were involved in accidents such as drowning in rivers when crossing. For example, Fredrick I of the Holy Roman Empire drowned in Saleph River in 1190 during the third crusade. Besides, disaster struck 200 people in Rome during 1450 jubilee. They perished while crossing the great bridge of Sant’ Angelo. Travelers traveled by sea or on land. Traveling by sea posed significant problems from storms and the rowdy boats. Boats were not strong enough to withstand the challenges posed by the sea. However, sea traveling became safe by the later middle ages. Medieval Travelers covered 15-15 miles traveling on foot, 20-30, and 75-125 miles sailing in a ship in a day.
Heresy
In the medieval period, people who went against the teaching of the Christian church were considered as heretics. They include Muslims, Jews, and Cathars. Religious leaders ensured the success of Christendom in the late 11th century. Jerusalem was captured in 1099 in the first crusade, which was used to held crusades. Jews and Muslims were subjected to persecution, expulsion, and even death by European Christians. Jews were banished in England by Edward 1 in 1290. In 1492, Jews were expelled in Spain, while Muslims were only allowed to stay if they converted to Christianity. Holy wars were conventional among Christians who were termed as heretics. During the 13th and 14th centuries, massacres increased in France were inquisitions and executions prevailed.
Hunting
During the medieval period, hunting was a form of leisure for medieval royalty and aristocracy. The royal families highly appreciated hunting skills. England William the conqueror established royal forest for enjoying hunting skills. However, hunting involved some risks. Hunters were faced with accidents and even death. Some of the hunting threats included:
- Falling from horse
- Piercing by an arrow
- Mauling by boar horns
- Attack by bears
High profile people in the royal families were not spared either. For example, emperor Byzantine Basil 1 died when his belt impaled on the horse in 886. King William 11 died of an arrow in a hunting accident, and finally, king Fulk of Jerusalem died in 1143 in a horse accident.
Impact of the medieval period on urban development
Developments in the urban came to a halt. Demographic problems were hazardous to the human population. Violence and civil war affected the growth of metropolitan cities. Political instability affected the cohesiveness of the people. It also led to the loss of lives. Hunting led to the fall of great leaders from the accidents involved. The social, political, and economic sector of the urban cities was in turmoil. For example, price inflation led to poor living standards since the majority of people could not afford prices for commodities. Execution, persecution on religious basis become rampant in the urban cities. The mortality rate increased pioneered by plague and devastating weather conditions. Hunting led to the development of leisure activities, and sites for hunting were established to enjoy the fun. Trade declined in urban cities because there was a shortage of products such as animal products (meat and milk) and cereals dropped due to epidemics. Life expectancy in urban towns decreased immensely due to outbreaks.
However, cities developed due to increased trading in the town. Surplus production led to the growth of a stable government. New empires were established. Trading routes developed, which opened Europe to the outside world. More industries were established, and the Muslim region began to grow in Europe.
In conclusion, the report has discussed factors that led to the development of the urban period in detail. Events done during the period led to increased urbanization in Europe. Agriculture played a vital role in the development of the civic period. However, some challenges posed a more significant challenge to the high population. The population of Europe was decreased almost halfway by epidemics which hit Europe.