theories in applied psychology and social organization
Kurt Lewin was an America-German psychologist born on September 9th, 1890. Until his death on February 12th, 1847, Lewin had helped develop numerous theories in applied psychology and social organization. Lewin was born to a Jewish family and immigrated to the US, where he developed his change model in the 1940s. John Kotter is an American Leadership professor born on February 25th, 1947. Through his extensive research, the Harvard based professor developed the 8-step Change Model, basing it on Kurt Lewin’sLewin’s Change theory. Carl Rogers was an American psychologist born on January 4th, 1902, and died on February 8th, 1987. Widely known for his role in humanistic psychology, Rogers helped shape the Change theory by developing several principles.
In Carl Rogers’Rogers’ change model, Rogers explains the questions of why, at what rate, and how change happens. Rogers uses the Diffusion of Innovations concept to explain how new methods, innovations, and technologies are achieved (Sahin, 2006). Rogers’Rogers’ theory of diffusion of innovations comprises four elements; change, communication channels, social system, and time. In innovations, Rogers argues that innovation refers to practices, ideas, or projects that are new to an individual and other adoption units. Rogers states that innovation could have been done several years ago, but it is only innovation to someone who sees it in the modern era. As stated in Sahin (2006), decision, persuasion, and knowledge, are the determinants of how the adoption of an innovation can be defined. In communication channels, Rogers defines communication as a way in which participants share the created information. According to Rogers, channels are a means by which information is shared between the receiver and the source. According to Rogers, diffusion is a form of communication, and it involves two individuals, and innovation, and a communication channel. Time helps in the determination of diffusion rates, while social systems are set of units aimed at accomplishing a common goal. Innovators in this model are defined as people willing to explore and come up with new ideas. Early-adopters are the individuals who are people with leadership roles and are reliable in helping others adopt the innovation. Early and the late majority are differentiated depending on the time of adoption of the change, while laggards are those not willing to embrace the innovation.
In his model, Rogers develops five stages in the decision process of innovation. The knowledge stage is whereby individuals learn about the existence of innovation. The persuasion stage an effective-centered stage that involves negative and positive feelings about the knowledge in step one, as shown in Sahin, (2006). The decision stage is whereby the individuals either adopt or reject the innovation. The implementation stage involves putting innovation into practice. The final step is the confirmation stage in which individuals support their innovation. In reducing uncertainty in a change, Rogers proposes five attributes. Relative advantage involves increasing the rate of adoption of the innovation, while compatibility consists of ensuring that an individual is compatible with the innovation. Complexity defines the level to which the change can be understood. Trial-ability refers to the degree to which an innovation can be tested, and finally, observability determines how visible the innovation is to others.
Having grown in a minority and disadvantaged environment in Germany, Kurt Lewin worked towards resolving social conflicts. Lewin purposed to understand the formation, motivation, and maintenance of groups, whereby he used field and Group Dynamics theories. He also wanted to change social behaviors in groups (Burnes, 2004). Lewin believed that by resolving racial, religious, industrial, or marital problems, he would have improved the human condition significantly. In understanding social conflicts, Lewin proposed that it is critical to understand the forces and states responsible for the complexity of a specific field. In Group Dynamics, Lewin proposed an analysis of a group rather than analyzing individuals. Finally, action research enabled Lewin to answer social problem questions.
According to Lewin, a change aimed at a higher performance by a group must embrace the three steps to change. In his proposal, Lewin stated that the first step is the unfreezing stage, which involves the creation of awareness of the change. In this stage, Burnes (2004) states that the need for change is created and understood by all stakeholders. The moving step involves the implementation or action towards achieving the transformation. Finally, the refreezing stage stabilizes the group by reinforcing the acceptance of the changes made in the group.
John Kotter, in his 8-steps to change, uses Lewin’sLewin’s ideas to develop strategies towards the achievement of change. In these stages, Kotter defines the first stage as the creation of urgency for change. He proposes that the creation of an environment in which individuals are aware of the various problems. In step two, Kotter urges the formation of powerful coalitions because change cannot be brought by one individual (Appelbaum, Habashy, Malo, & Shafiq, 2012). In step three, Kotter urges people to create visions for change, whereby the other members within an organization can get inspiration. The fourth step involves the communication of the vision to all the stakeholders. The fifth step consists of the removal of barriers to bringing the change. In this stage, traditions, physical obstacles, legislation, and traditions barring change are removed.
The sixth step involves the creation of short-term gains and wins. In this step, the individuals are encouraged by a system of short-term gains, which ensures progress in implementing change. As stated by Kotter in Appelbaum et al. (2012), the seventh step involves building on the stage, whereby goals are set to ensure the change remains sustainable after implementation. The last stage, as defined by Kotter, consists of incorporating the transition into the organization’s culture.