A Comparison of Early European Approaches to the Northeast
Exploration and expansion into North American territories was a common objective undertaken by most European nations in pre-modern centuries. This exploration extended to far northeast territories, including Canada and Greenland. Different historians have documented the explorations by early Europeans, such as the Basque and the Vikings. Two examples of such accounts are “Vikings and Arctic farmers: the Norse Atlantic Saga” by Robert McGhee and “The Basques in the Gulf of St-Lawrence and adjacent shores” by Brad Loewen and Vincent Delmas. Both accounts present some similarities in regards to early European contact in the Northeast. However, significant differences are also noted between the Viking and Basque explorations of Canada. The writers present diverse themes including the reasons for settling, religious motivations, connections with Europe and contact with Aboriginals among others. This paper explores these themes and seeks to demonstrate that there are significant differences between the Viking and Basque approaches to the American Northeast.
A few similarities are noted between early contact by the Vikings and the Basque. First, both European explorers had a strong connection with their European heritage. McGhee states that the Norsemen, who landed in Greenland, became a direct tributary of Norway in 1262. The Norsemen maintained their link to their Norwegian heritage by paying taxes and levies on the goods they produced to their homeland (93). Similarly, the Basque also maintained a connection to their European heritage by getting involved in disputes between France, England, and Spain (223). Another similarity between the two groups was their dependence and success in commercial fishing. The Basque were expert fishermen that engaged in cod fishing before switching to whaling owing to the abundance of bowhead whales in the region (223). Likewise, the Norse Vikings also thrived in commercial cod fishing after switching from agriculture (85). The switch from farming to switching came from the realization that the northern lands were not quite suitable for agriculture. Moreover, the switching from cod fishing to whaling by the Basque and farming to fishing by the Vikings shows that adaptation is also a key similarity.
The first significant difference between the Basque and the Norsemen that settled in northeast Canada was the reason for settling. In the first case, the Basque fishermen arrived in northeast Canada with the primary objective of capitalizing on the economic opportunities of the fishing industry in the region. From the 11th century, the Basque became heavily dependent on commercial fishing and sea navigation as their main economic activity (217). Therefore, they explored the seas and oceans for rich fishing grounds with particular interest placed on cod fishing and whaling. Loewen and Delmas contend that the discovery of whaling sites and ovens by the gulf of St. Lawrence indicate that the Basque primarily focused on extracting oil from whale blubber (226). Also, the Basque settlements found in the area indicated no clear intent of colonizing the new lands. Therefore, the primary incentive of the settlement was for the economic opportunity presented by commercial whaling.
In contrast, the motivations for Norse Viking settlements in the region were a response to natural disasters, and to spread religion. McGhee notes that during the 13th century, Europeans suffered natural calamities and epidemic diseases such as the plague and smallpox. These disasters decimated a large section of the population, prompting them to escape their homelands (85). This prompted Norsemen to seek new lands away from their European home. Furthermore, the Viking lands were dominated by powerful chieftains who encouraged their kinsmen to seek out new lands (86). As a result, sea-fairing Vikings arrived in the Northeast looking for new settlements. These settlements further extended westwards as the Norsemen search for new lands to colonize and settle in.
Secondly, there is a sharp contrast between the religious motivations for the two groups. McGhee posits that religion played a vital role in the expansion of the Vikings to Greenland. He cites early voyages by Irish priests as far back as 825AD who arrived in search of new lands to live their lives free of metropolitan influence and temptations (80). In addition, archeologists have found numerous Christian graveyards in Greenland that date back to 1000AD (91). These graveyards are believed to be associated with Eirik the Red. A letter was written by Pope Nicholas V in 1448 to priests in Greenland also signifies the religious aspect of Viking settlements (98). Therefore, it is evident that religion was a big motivator for the Viking expansion and settlement in the Northeast.
Alternately, the aspect of religion cannot be linked with the Basque exploration and expansion in Canada. The Basque could not institute their religion in the area, as they were not permanent settlers but seasonal visitors. Loewen and Delmas observe that the Basque were seasonal voyagers to the region, and their voyages coincided with the high fishing seasons for whale and cod (213). The Basque would arrive in the area during the high season, fish much as they can, then return to Europe after the end of the fishing season. Consequently, the Basque voyages to the Gulf of St. Lawrence were mainly for commercial prosperity rather than religious motivation.
Finally, there is a substantial contrast in the relationship and contact between settlers from the two groups and the native aboriginal people. On one side, the Basque had quite a warm relationship with the native Aboriginals. Findings by Loewen and Delmas show that there exist numerous traces of friendly contact between the Basque and Mikma’w cultures (234). For instance, the research found that several elements e.g., Basque expressions, could be found in Mi’kmaw culture and language. Findings also show that many aboriginal people would adopt Basque names such as Johanna (234). The natives also traded with Europeans, spoke Basque, and assimilated Basque maritime knowledge signifying dense intertwining between the two communities (235). Thus, it is evident that they had a strong and friendly relationship.
On the flip side, the relationship between the Vikings and the aboriginals was not as friendly. McGhee notes that evidence collected from Norwegian settlements show signs of skirmishes and violent conflict with the native population. A good example is a Norse 12th-century text called the Historia Norvegiae that mentions such conflict with the aboriginals (93). This notion is further supported by a letter from Ivar Bardason; a church official sent to investigate the state of the church in Greenland. The letter details the eviction of Norsemen from their settlements by the native aboriginals (94). These Norwegian texts show that the relationship between the Viking settlers and the native locals was far from harmonious.
In conclusion, there exist certain similarities between the Basque and Viking expansion in the Northeast. These similarities include the prevalence of commercial fishing, connections to Europe, and adaptation to the new environment. However, there exist numerous differences between the two European voyagers in the quests to expand their settlements in northern Canada. Sharp contrasts are noted in their reasons for settlement, religious motivations, and contact with the native aboriginals. Therefore, the accounts of early European settlers by McGhee and Loewen and Delmas contain more differences than similarities.
References
Loewen, Brad and Vincent Delmas, “The Basques in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Adjacent Shores,” Canadian Journal of Archaeology 36, no. 2 (2012): 213–266.
McGhee, Robert. “Vikings and Arctic Farmers: The Norse Atlantic Saga,” in The Last Imaginary Place: A Human History of the Arctic World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
Brad Loewen and Vincent Delmas, “The Basques in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Adjacent
Shores,” Canadian Journal of Archaeology 36, no. 2 (2012): 213–266, e-book.
Robert McGhee, “Vikings and Arctic Farmers: The Norse Atlantic Saga,” chap. 5 in The Last
Imaginary Place: A Human History of the Arctic World (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2007).