The definition of international orders varies depending on different scholars. Kissinger defines it as the concept held by regions and civilizations about the nature of arrangements and the distribution of power that can apply to the entire world. Another definition or understanding is a set of governing agreements between states, and it includes fundamental rules, principles, and institutions. Typically orders are built from a combination of alliances and organizations, treaties, rules, and regulations. The international order, therefore, can be understood as a broad global context in which states operate. The order reflects all aspects of economic, political, and cultural. The international community becomes an embodiment of normative ideals, which exerts its influence on global politics. The order was formed when the group of states had common interests and values, and they become bound together by a set of rules. The international order was established after World War II, and it reflected on the domination of Western economies, ideas, and institutions. While the order was formed, the countries had uneven economies and technological development. The various changes and events in the world became challenging for the international order. The principle challenge to the international order in the world of the 1990s was instability in Europe resting on various factors like nationalism and imbalance of power.
Terrorism
Various events saw the challenges on nationalism and imbalance of power become actualized. Terrorism was one of these significant events. The 1990s saw recalls a series of multiple horrific events that shaped not just the world but the challenges in the international order. The United States, for instance, faced this threat the most. In 1994 the Pakistani-supported Taliban militia in Afghanistan emerged.
This Taliban was characterized and associated with state sponsors of terrorism, which provided travel documentation, training, and logistical support. There were other militant groups in Afghanistan before the Taliban, but the control of the Taliban evolved. It was seen as a relatively coordinated and widespread group with terrorism capabilities. The Taliban movement initially was resisting the Soviet Union in Afghanistan, and it promised imposing stability and the rule of law. By 1996 it was able to declare Afghanistan an Islamic emirate imposing a harsh justice and territorial control. The regime was internationally recognized by the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, but the UN Security council mainly urged it to end the abusive treatment it had on women. The Taliban, however, went on instead to harbor al-Qaeda, giving them sanctuary. This led to Osama bin Laden orchestrating bombing on United States Embassies in East Africa 1998. The Taliban became banished for this.
The 90s saw the increasing willingness of the religious extremists willing to target other countries and inflicting terrorism on them. Other attacks include the 1993 World Trade Centre bombings. The mixing of the Pakistani movements with the Taliban and the Afghanistan allies strengthened these groups allowing them to have funding and training for terrorism.
The Pakistani Northwest Frontier Province, for instance, is known to have allied with the Taliban to fight the opposition forces. All the support in this region gave rise to the Islamabad’s ability to exert control over militants and grow in numbers. This created a lot of world insecurity, and the regions like the United States began advocating for nationalism and more control of the borders to ensure their security.
Instability in the Middle East
The 90s was also a time in which the Middle East faced various challenges such as the first Gulf War, which took place between 1990 and 1991. This was the first conflict after the cold war. This was a challenge of the international order because the United States set war and peace as one of the global agenda. Maintaining world peace was a target for the order. The Gulf War first began on 2nd August 1990 when Iraq invaded Kuwait and claimed it as a district. One of the causes of this war was that Iraq did not recognize Kuwait’s independence. Still, also Saddam Hussein needed domestic legitimacy, and Iraq also wanted to achieve regional hegemony. Kuwait, on the other hand, felt that it could tolerate the actions of Iraq at the time, which made the country vulnerable.
Iraq during this time had just gone through another war between 1980 and 1988 with Iran, which had cause depletion of the country’s resources and also left it in a lot of debt. Much of this debt was owed to Saudi Arabia and even Kuwait. The war also led to numerous economic losses that were caused by low oil revenues and high expenditure from the military. These losses made it difficult for the country to pay its debts, and also the post-war reconstruction was not possible. The standards of living depleted and the final resolution was a cease-fire.
The invasion of Kuwait was, therefore, a reasonable option for the country as it promised an end to the economic losses. The wealth Kuwait got from its oil would be instrumental in Iraq reconstructing the country and paying off its debts to the Arabs.
The invasion was a way that Iraq could claim its victory over the entire Gulf. Iraq would be able to dictate the oil prices enabling it to serve its political interests. This meant that Iraq would have control over twenty-one percent of OPEC’s production in total. Iraq would be able to extend its military and economic power earning the country leadership in Pan-Arab regions.
At the time, the Western countries did not want to get involved in Arab disputes, and this was evident with previous conflicts that lacked any involvement or reactions by the western states. Saddam Hussein, at this time, interpreted the silence to mean that the likelihood of military action form the western countries would be unlikely. This was, however, a miscalculation on the part of Iraq. Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait was stopped by the use of overwhelming airpower, forcing them out of the region. America did not want to have any prolonged ground operations in the area because it wanted to avoid mass casualties. Kuwait restored to the Sabah royal family, and this looked more like an achievement for the WestWest and a defeat for Saddam Hussein. This demonstration of power by the United States created an illusion that the World Order had replaced the Cold War. The notion was that America would impose its beliefs and values on the rest of the world while hiding behind the idea of the international order. This was a big challenge since countries now did not believe in the order and the ideas that the order would bring.
Still on the instability in the Middle East was the Yemen civil war. The region historically was termed as a destination for migrations and smuggling in the greater Horn of Africa. The civil war of 1994, however, opened the door to another form of migration to the country. The1990s saw the reunification of Yemen, and Saleh was not president on the republic of Yemen and not just the north. Concurrently the Houthis gain power through the support of President Saleh. Few years after the reunification of Yemen, armies from the north and south had conflicts that led to the civil war in 1994. Most of the fighting took place I the southern part of the country. Still, the air and missile attacks were more concentrated in the north. Southerners received massive support from neighboring countries in terms of equipment and financial assistance.
The United States was mainly in support of the Yemen unity and kept calling for a cease-fire and re-negotiations between the two sides. UN special envoys were also deployed to bring about ta cease-fire, but this too was unsuccessful. The war eventually resulted in the defeat of the Southern army, and they declared secession. This was when the Democratic Republic of Yemen was established on 21st May 1994. The international community, however, did not recognize this new community. The country was not united, and while Saleh became president, a new government was formed, and it excluded the southern party. Muslim extremists in the region began planned acts of violence, and this now went to the extent of kidnapping foreign tourists. They committed other forms of terrorist attacks, such as the bombing of USS Cole, which had been anchored at the port of Yemen in October 200. The extremists also bombed the British embassy.
The unrest and instability in the Middle East proved to be such a challenge for the International order. The various happenings removed all the focus from the order and into ensuring security for nations. The wars and terrorist attacks led to increased nationalism, which meant that international order was not the main focus anymore.
Instability in Europe
Most scholars would argue that it was the collapse of the Soviet Union that led to the end of the cold war. The existence of the Soviet Union in itself had been a challenge to the international order. The reasons for the fall of the Soviet Union are linked to other events that took part in the 1990s and shook the global world. Still, the fall of the Soviet Union was a catalyst to other activities that created challenges for the international order. Boris Yeltsin is credited for the disintegration of the USSR, and while he was a champion for democracy and sovereignty, he faced a considerable challenge holding the country together. Russia became an independent state in 1991. At this time, the country was the world’s largest populated country with small minority ethnic groups. Republics and autonomies defined these groups, and they even gained the term “parade of sovereignties.” These Russian republics went on quick to demand powers and resources from the Russian state. Republics that were powerful and rich in resources like Tatarstan and Bashkortostan declared their sovereignty, created their constitutions, formed their governments, and elected their presidents. This led to the other ethnic republics to follow suit.
Sovereignty became cheap as regions with small populations also began forming their sovereigns. The inflation of the sovereign states became a significant challenge since the Soviet Union no longer had the management of natural resources in these regions, including the revenues that they created. The regions had their internal political institutions, and they proceeded to leave the Russian constitutional space. Chechnya, for instance, declared its independence, which led to a military intervention in 1996, which saw heavy losses. Eventually, the region was left to its own devices. The numerous ethnic republics that broke away from Russia were not ready to join the International order. Most republics were still forming governments and creating their constitutions of focus on the international order. Local government bodies were developed with the introduction to a new law in 1995 (229). The new law had been criticized for its vagueness in terms of power, allowing flexibility for the local institutions.
Clearly, with all the political instability happening in Russia and its regions, the international order was not something that was being focused on. The United States and the Soviet Union had been the dominant and most potent powers behind the International order during 1945. Still, the 90s saw numerous events taking place in Europe, especially in Russia. Full sovereignty of its regions was a significant challenge for them, and the governance of the areas was something that the republics were just beginning to die into. These regions needed to work together since some regions were in control of natural resources, but they still needed each other.
Imbalance of power
One region having more advantages and power did not seem ideal for the stability of the international order. The fall of the Soviet Union led to the United States dominating the International Order in what scholars’ term as the unipolar moment (491). During the Cold War the Soviet Union and United States had substantial rivalry but the twentieth century saw the decrease in this rivalry. The 1990s saw the United States grow into a global economic superpower that went unchallenged. The domination of the economy was met through globalization and the introduction of the internet. The stock markets saw rapid rises passing the magic mark, and with Clinton’s administration, the late 90s even had a massive economic boom. The level of unemployment during this time was at its lowest, and the federal budget was in a surplus.
The United States used this power by driving globalization and trying to enhance international trade through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1995. This also led to the creation of the World Trade Organization, which was tasked with lowering tariffs and persuading countries that were newly industrializing to allow international investment. This transformation in the global economy gave the sense that America had attained victory in the cold war and attained superiority in economic development. Russia, at the time, was facing massive political instability, which was also affecting its economic status. The internal weakness of the Russian federation enhanced the position of the United States, making it the sole superpower. This weakness, however, also created other threats and concerns for the fate of the nuclear arsenal and other weapons of mass destruction.
Various treaties were signed between Russia and the United States, such as Strategic Arms Reduction Talks in 1998. This led to at least three countries Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, agreeing to remove nuclear weapons from their territories. (493). By this time, the International order seemed to be a United States conquest as it was the only superpower at the time, and it was gaining the most through its drive of globalization.
One issue brought about by unipolarity is the imbalance of power. Power imbalances often lead to conflict where the significant power seems to bully the weaker power using its superior strength to coerce the minor state. The bullying of other countries is not the ideal way to dominate the other country. These actions can lead to hindrances of coalitions and can even peace. The power imbalance between the United States and Russia led to the United States trying to bully Russia into giving up its nuclear weapons. Russia had become a weaker state due to political instability and its failing economy, as earlier mentioned. However, the country still had a massive arsenal of nuclear weapons under its control. The United States fears that the instability of the region would lead to weapons falling to the wrong hands. This was the reason for the treaties being formed, but Russia did not budge and still stuck to its weapons. In defiance to what the United States wanted, Russia sold nuclear technology to Iran. This was a clear act of defiance due to the pressure that the United States and other Western democracies imposed on Russia. Energy prices began to shoot up, and Russia’s economy remained stable. This created the illusion that Russia was still a force to reckon with. (494)
Rising nationalism and Huntington’s civilizational clash
The rise of nationalism was a significant challenge as wars seemed to keep erupting, such as the wars in Balkans. Countries like Yugoslavia disintegrated, separating themselves from all the chaos that was happening. This was not ideal for the international order as the progress seemed to be blocked by the nationalism that was erupting in various areas. Huntington’s theory explains that the end of the war, as seen in history, will lead to other forms of conflicts between civilizations. This will be an evolution of conflict in the modern world. A civilization is defined as a cultural entity such as ethnic groups, religious groups. European communities have features that distinguish them from Arabs and Chinese communities, for instance. These civilizations are dynamic, and they rise and fall. The clash of civilizations will be caused by increased interactions and awareness of the differences and commonalities within the civilization. The world is becoming a smaller place, and social change is taking place, separating people from what they term as their local identities. Economic regionalism is increasing with economic relations increasing, for instance, between China, Taiwan, Singapore, and Honking. Culture and religion also form the basis of cooperation in the economy, such as among non-Arab Muslim countries Such as Iran, Turkey, Kazakhstan. The “us” versus “them” mentality is increasingly common, with the WestWest being in power over the other civilizations creating the rest of the world versus the west mentality. This mentality created a challenge for the international order given the main force behind the order was the Western countries and particularly the United States.
Conclusion
The main challenge to the international order of the 1990s was the instability in Europe, which was brought about by transnational forces such as the issues in Russia, which shook its stability and directly affected the world order. The transitional forces, such as the power imbalance between the United States and Russia, were also a contributing factor to the stability of the world order. The United States emerging as a superpower, seemed to create doubt among the countries with the real intentions of the country behind the international order. Still issues if terrorism made countries focus on nationalism in efforts to solidify security in their regions.